
Class -^11 ^> / 
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ELEMENTS 



TORY, 

ANCIENT AND MODERN : S f 



mfstottcal Ctftarts. 



BY J.^ E: WORCESTER. 



BOSTON 



PUBLISHED BY CUMMINGS, BILLIARD, AND CO. 
iro. 134, WASHINGTON STREET. 

1826. ^ 



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DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, TO WIT: 

District Clerk^s Office. 
BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the seventh day of Januaj->-, A. D, 1826, 
and in the fiftieth year of tlie Independence of the United States of America, 
J. E. Worcester, of the suid district, has deposited in this office the title of a book, 
the right whereof he claims as author, in the words Ibllowing, to wit : 

" Elements of History, Ancient and Modern : with Historical Charts. By 
J. E. AVorcester." 

In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An 
act for tixe eneouragemejit of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, 
and books to the authors and proprietors of such co]iies, durnig the times therein 
mentioned ;" and also an act, entitled, " An act, supplementary to an act, entitled, 
' An act for the encouragement ol learning, by securing tho copies of maps, charts, 
und books to the autjiors and i)roprietors of such copies, during the times therein 
mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, 
and etching, historical and other iirints." 

JOHN W. DAVIS, 
Clerk of the District of Massachusetts. 



M^^ 



^"c::^ 



PREFACE. 



In this work an attempt has been made to facilitate 
the studj of history by the use of a series of Charts, 
which are made to correspond, in some measure, to 
the use of maps in the study of geography. The 
utility of Chronological and Historical Tables and 
Charts, is universally acknowledged, and several valu- 
able works of this nature have been given to the pub- 
lic, as those of Blair, Playfair, Le Sage, Lavoisne, and 
others; but these works are too unwieldy, and too ex- 
pensive, to be much' used- for purposes of education. 
Single charts of history and biography have also 
been published, which are highly useful ; but they 
are too limited in their plan to afford all the assistance 
which is desirable in the study of history. 

The charts which accompany this volume, have 
been formed with much labour and research, and all 
of them are constructed upon plans more or less novel. 
The Chart of History, the first in the series, is similar 
in its plan to one published many years since by Dr. 
Priestley, and resembles still more an improved Chart 



IV PREFACE. 

of History by Mr. Baily. To Dr. Priestley the pub^ 
lie are also indebted for a valuable Chart of Biography, 
to which one of these bears a resemblance, though 
the plan is materially different. 

The outlines of history may be acquired with in- 
comparably greater facility by the use of charts, than 
by the perusal of volumes, independently of such aid; 
and what is of great importance, the information thus 
obtained, will be so impressed on the mind as to be 
much more durable, than if acquired by any other 
method. By means of them one may easily trace 
the rise, progress, revolutions, dechne, and fall of states 
and empires ; see what states have been contemporary, 
and what have existed at different periods ; take com- 
prehensive views of the whole ground of history, and 
comparative views of the particular parts ; mark the 
succession of the different dynasties, and sovereigns 
in the different kingdoms and empires ; learn the 
leading events of the several reigns and of different 
ages, and observe the periods when the most illustrious 
persons have flourished. 

But for a knowledge of the internal condition and 
history of a state, the particular details of events 
with their causes and consequences, and the exploits 
of individuals, who have figured upon the theatre of 
the world, recourse must be had to other sources of 
information. In order, therefore, that the study of 
history may be pursued to the best advantage, and a 
proper attention be paid to the connexion both of 
time and of subject, the use of the charts should be 
united with that of historical narrative. 



PREFACE. 



As it would be impossible, in a volume of the size of 
this, to trace a regular series of events relating to all the 
states and empires that have flourished in the world, 
the chief attention of the author has been paid to a few 
of them ; those of which the history is of the greatest 
importance, particularly to Am.erican students, namely, 
Greece and Rome in ancient history, and France, 
England, and the United States, in modern. Bi'icf 
notices, however, of various other states have been 
given, and also some short treatises on topics of im- 
portance in an introduction to the study of history. 

Sacred and Ecclesiastical History have received 
some attention ; and the volume, in connexion v/ith 
the charts, will be found to afford, in addition to the 
details of general history, much information relating 
to religion, literature, and the progress of society. 

In the preparation of the Elements, the author has 
endeavoured to unite so much of reflection, with the 
details of facts, as to assist the reader in forming cor- 
rect views of the causes and consequences of events ; 
and in order to render the work more interesting, he 
has, in some instances, introduced short anecdotes and 
memorable observations of distinguished men on im- 
portant occasions. 

Every one, much conversant with history, must be 
aware of the frequent and often great diversity in the 
accounts given of the characters of men and events, 
even by authors of reputation. This diversify is to be 
attributed partly to the peculiar principles and preju- 
dices of the historians, and partly to the contradictory 
statements in the original sources of history, 
a* 



VI PREFACE. 

As the line of truth is in so many cases obscure 
and difficult to be discovered, the author cannot hope 
that he has, in no instances, fallen into error. It has, 
however, been his object to follow the best guides, 
and to give true impressions of the character of per- 
sons and transactions, so far as they came under 
review ; but it would be impossible for him, were it 
desirable, to give a complete enumeration of his au- 
thorities, as information has been derived from up- 
wards of two hundred volumes. 

Method of using this work. 

With regard to the mode of using this work, the 
author would recommend, that after the short sections 
on the Uses of History, the Sources of History, and the 
Early Ages, have been attended to, the Chart of History 
[Chart No. I.] should be studied, with the aid of the 
Description and Illustration, and Questions. By this 
means the student will have the general outlines of 
history impressed upon his mind ; and having thus 
gained a comprehensive view of the whole ground, he 
will be prepared to study the particular parts with 
greater advantage. 

The chart of Ancient Chronology may be advan- 
tageously attended to in connexion with the history of 
Greece and Rome. 

After the student has finished Ancient History, and 
also the sections on the Middle Ages, the Saracens, the 
Crusades, and Chivalry, he may then acquaint himself 
with the charts of Modern Chronology and of European 



PREFACE. VIJ 

Sovereigns. The study of the history of France^ Eng- 
land^ and the United States, may then be pursued in 
connexion with that of the charts relating to each. 

The short sketch of Ecclesiastical History may be 
attended to in connexion with the chart of Ecclesiastical 
History, [See Chart No. I.] and the column relating 
to the same subject, in the charts of Ancient and Modern 
Chronology, 

It is of less importance in what order the charts of 
Biography and Mythology are studied. They may be 
omitted till the last; or the chart of Mythology and 
the ancient part of that of Biography, may be at- 
tended to before Modern History is commenced. 

After this more general survey of the charts in con- 
nexion with the Elements, they should be thoroughly 
revised. A series of questions is inserted, in order to 
assist the teacher and the learner ; but in reviewing the 
charts, the teacher will probably find it expedient not 
to limit himself to the use of the printed questions, but 
will extend the system of examining his pupils upon 
the charts, as far as he shall find it advantageous. 



ERRATA. 

Page 98, line 25 ; for ordinary, read ordinary. 

100. line 7 from tlie bottom ; for interpet, read interpret. 

103. line 11 ; for were, read might. 

158, line 26 ; before 28,000,000 insert £. 

179, in the line under Section vi.for Edward VI. read Richard III. 

191, line 20 ; ybr judge, read judges. 

196, lines 8 and II from the bottom; for Barbone, read JBarebone. 

205, line 10 from the bottom ; for 10 last, read last 10. 

" " 6 " for statesmen, read statesman. 

207, line 16 ; for mouths, read months. 

( Page 219, line 6 ; for Powhaton, read Powhatan. 
r 8^ 219, line 4 from the bottom, after medium, insert of. 

*? \ 220, bottom line ; for colonly, read colony. 

copies, j 225, line 16; o/ie*- commanded, insert by. 

|_ 228, line 13 ; for Edward Randoph, read Edward Randolph, 

Page 252, line 9 from the bottom, cfter sallied, insert out. 
268, bottom line ; fur revive, read revived. 
255, line 6,/or £100,000, read £100.000,000. 
HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

Chart JVo. I. In some copies, between the 2d and 5th centuries, A. D.,yb>- 
Parthians, read Persians. 

Chart of European Sovereigns. On the left hand of Paul emperor of Rus- 
sia, for 99, read 96. 

Before pope Leo X., insert 1503 Julius II. The reign of this ambitious 
pontiff ivas too important to be omitted. 

Chronological Sfc. Chart of France, for VB.iT.rp VIL Augustus, read 
Philip IL Augustus. 



Works of the same author published by Cummings, Hilliartl, 
and Co. 

A Geographical DrcTioNART, or Universal Gazetteer, 

Ancient and Modern. In 2 vols. 8vo. 

Elements of Geography, Ancient and Modern, with an Atlas. 

Sketches of the Earth and its Inhabitants, with one 
hundred Engravings. In 2 vols. 12mo. 



CONTENTS. 



The Uses of History 1 

The Sources of History ....... 3 

The Early Ages 4 

Egypt 5 

The Phoenicians ' . • • .V 

Assyria and Babylon ........ S 

Persia . XO 

Greece. — Section I. The Country and the People ... 12 
II. The History of Greece divided into Periods . .13 

HI. Fabulous Age. — Foundation of Cities and Institutions. — 
Argonautic Expedition • . . . . . 14 

IV. Heroic Age. — Trojan War. — Return of the Heraclidse 15 

V. Sparta or Lacedaemon : Institutions of Lycurgus . 17 

VI. Athens: Codrus ; Draco: Solon and his Institutions: 
Pisistratus s Pisistratidae . . . . " .19 

VII. Greece invaded by the Persians under Cyrus : Battle of 
Marathon : Miltiades. — Persian Invasion under Xerxes : 
Themistocles ; Aristides : Battle of Thermopylae ; Leonidas : 
Battles of Salamis, Platsea, and Mycale : Cimon . .21 

VIII. Peloponnesian War: Pericles: Alcibiades: Battle of 
-S^gos-Potamos : Lysander : Thirty Tyrants : Socrates : Re- 
treat of the Ten Thousand : Peace of Antalcidas : Thebes : 
Epaminondas: Battles of Leuctra and Mantinea: Agesi- 
laus . 26 

IX. Philip of Macedon ; Sacred War ; Battle of Chaeronea ; 
Alexander the Great ; Conquest of Persia ; Battles of the 
Granicus, Issus, and Arbela ; Alexander's Death . . SO 

X. Alexander's Successors ; Demosthenes ; Phocion ; Deme- 
trius Phalereus ; Achaean League ; Philopoemen ; Subjuga- 
tion of Macedonia and Greece . . . . .36 

XI. Grecian Antiquities ...... 40 

Syria under the Seleucidae ........ 46 

Egypt under the Ptolemies , 41? 



X CONTENTS. 

Home. — Section I. Roman history ; Foundation of Rome ; Romulus ; 
Numa ; Tullus Hostilius ; Ancus Martius ; Tarquinius Pris- 
cus ; Servius Tullius ; Tarquinius Superbus, — expelled, and 
the regal government abolisTied . . . . .51 

II. The Commonwealth ; Consuls, Collatinus and Brutus ; 
Valerius ; Porsenna ; Dictator : The Plebeians encamp on 
Mons Sacer ; Tribunes ; Coriolanus ; Law of Volero ; 
Cincinnatus ; The Twelve Tables ; Decemvirs ; Appius 
Claudius . .... i ... 53 

III. Military Tribunes ; Censors ; Veii destroyed ; Camillus ; 
Rome burnt by the Gauls -, Brennus ; Manlius ; The Sam- 
nites i Pyrrhus ; Conquest of Italy . . . .59 

IV. Carthage and Sicily 63 

V. First Punic War ; Regulus •• Second Punic War ; Han- 
nibal ; Conquest of Macedonia ; Third Punic War ; Car- 
thage destroyed ; Conquest of Greece . . . .64 

VI. The Gracchi ; Jugurtha ; Social War ; Mithridates ; 
Marius and Sylla; Servile War ; Conspiracy of Catiline 68 

VII. First Triumvirate ; Civil War of Caesar and Pompey ; 
Second Triumvirate ; Dissolution of the Commonwealth 72 

VII. Rome under the Emperors ; The Caesars ; Augustus, 
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, 
Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian . , . , . 80 

IX. Nerva ; Trajan ; Adrian j Antoninus Pius ; Marcus Au- 
relius Antoninus . . . . . . .85 

X. From Commodus to Constantine .... 88 

XI. From Constantine to the Extinction of the Western 
Empire ......... 90 

XII. The Kingdom of the Heruli, of the Goths, and of the 
Lombards. — The Eastern Empire to its Extinction . 94 

XIII. Roman Antiquities ...... 96 

MODERN HISTORY, 

The Middle Ages . 105 

The Arabs or Saracens . . . . . . . 107 

The Crusades 112 

Chivalry 118 

France. — Section I. Merovingian Kings ; Charlemagne, &c. . 1 25 

II. Capetian Kings, from Hugh Capet to Philip VI. of 
Valois 128 

III. Philip VI. ; John II. ; Charles VI, ; Charles VII. ; 
Louis XL ; Charles VIH. . . . • .131 

IV. Louis XIL; Francis I.; Henry II. ; Francis II.; 
Charles IX. ; Henry III 134 

V. Henry IV. ; Louis XIIL ; Louis XIV. . . 139 
VL Louis XV. ; Louis XVL ;— The Revolution . .144 
VII. The Revolution continued j Robespierre ; Bonaparte ; 

Eivopean War; LovusXVin.i Charles X. . .148 



CONfTUKTC. xi 

England. — Section! I. The History of Enf "and ; The Roman Con- 
quests The Sayou Conquest; The Heptarchy - .159 

II. From the Foundation of the Monarchy under Egbert to 

the Norman Conqi.est . . . . . .161 

III. The Norman Family ; — William I. the Conqueror ; 
William II. ; Henry I. ; Stephen . . .' .164 

IV. Family of Plantagenet : — Kenry II.; Richard I.; 
John ; Henrv III. ; Edward I. ; Edward II. ; Edward 
III. ; Richard II. . . : . . . .166 

V. Branch of Lancaster : — Henry IV. j Henry V. j Henry 

VI .176 

VI. Branch of York :— Edward IV. ; Edward V. -, Richard 

III 179 

VII. House of Tudor :— Henry VII. ; Henry VIII. ; Ed- 
ward VI. ; Mary ; Elizabeth 181 

VIII. The Stuart Family :— James I. ; Charles I. ;— The 
Commonwealth ; Cromwell : — Charles II. ; James II. ; 
William and Mary ; Anne . . . . .188 

IX. House of Brunswick : — George I. ; George II. ; George 
III. ; George IV. . . . . . . . 202 

~ America. — Discovery and Settlement ; Columbus ; Americus ; Cab- 
ot, &c. ; Conquest of Mexico and Peru ; — Cortez, Pizarro, &c. 206 

United States.— fecfton I. Settlement and Early History of the 
Colonies ; — Virginia ; New York ; Colonies of New. 
England; Indian Wars : — Maryland; Pennsylvania . 215 

II. Oppressive Measures relating to the Colonies ; French 
Wars ; Capture of Louisburg ; Expedition against New 
England ; Conquest of Canada ..... 227 

III. Disputes between Great Britain and the Colonies ; Com- 
mencement of Hostilities; Battles of Lexington and Bun- 
ker Hill ; Declaration of Independence . . . '234 

IV. Revolutionary War continued ; — Battles of Brooklyn, 
White Plains, Trenton, Princeton, Bennington, Brandy- 
wine, Germantown, Stillwater ; Surrender at Saratoga ;— 
Battles of Monmouth, Rhode Island, Camden, Cow-Pens, 
Guildford, Eutaw Springs ; Surrender at York Town : — 
Independence acknowledged ..... 243 

V. Army disbanded : The Constitution formed ; Washing- 
ton's Administration ; Adams's Administration . . 255 

VI. Jefferson's Administration ; Madison's Administration ; 
War with Great Britain: — Monroe; Adams . . 261 

Ecclesiastical History. — Section I. From the Birth of Christ to 

the year 325 ........ 270 

II. From A. D. 3^5 to 755 275 

III. From A. D. 755 to 1517 277 

IV. The Reformation, beginning in 1517 . . . 281 
Chronology 285 



XU CONTENTS, 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 



Chart of History— Description and Illustration . . . 288 

Questions on the Chart of History ...... ggg 

Chart of Ancient Chronology — Questions .... 294 

Chart of Modern Chronology ..... r . 296 

Questions on the Chart of Modern Chronology . . . 297 

Chart of European Sovereigns — Portugal ..... 298 

Spain ........ . : 299 

Germany .......... 300 

Poland 302 

Prussia ... ....... 303 

Russia .......... 304 

The Netherlands 306 

Questions on the Chart of European Sovereigns . . . 306 
Chronological, Genealogical, and Historical Chart of England — 

Questions 308 

Chronological, Genealogical, and Historical Chart of France-^ 

Questions 309 

Chart of American History — Questions ..... 310 

Chart of Ecclesiastical History . . . . . . 311 

Questions on the Chart of Ecclesiastical History . . . .316 

Chart of Biography . . 316 

Questions on the Chart of Biography 321 

Chart of Mythology 322 

Questions on the Chart of Mythology 324 



ELEMENTS OF HISTORY, 



THE USES OF HISTORY. 

1. History is a narrative of past events. The study 
of it is attractive both to the young and the old, to the 
unreflecting and tlie philosophical mind. It combines 
amusement of the deepest interest ; the exercise and im- 
provement of the best faculties of man ; and the acquisition 
of the most important species of knowledge. 

2. History, considered merely as a source of amusement, 
has great advantages over novels and romances, the pe- 
rusal of which too often debilitates the mind by inflaming 
the imagination, and corrupts the heart by infusing what 
may justly be regarded as moral poison. Like works of 
fiction, history serves to amuse the imagination and in- 
terest the passions, not always, indeed, in an equal degree ; 
yet it is free from the corrupting tendencies which too 
often belong to novels, and has a great superiority over 
them, inasmuch as it rests on the basis of fact. 

3. The love of novelty and of excitement is natural to 
mp.n ; hence the general taste for history, though its de- 
tails are not unfrequently painful. It affords a melancholy 
view of human nature, governed by the baser passions ; 
and is, to use the words of Goldsmith, " little else than the 
register of human contention and calamity." 

4. A higher use of history is to improve the understand- 
ing, and strengthen the judgment. It has been styled, 
philjsophy teaching by examples ; or moral philosophy 
exemplified by the lives and actions of men. It adds to 
our own experience an immense treasure of the experience 
of others, and thereby enables us to enter upon the business 

1 



2 USES OF HISTORY. 

of life with the advantage of being, in a manner, acquaint 
ed with it. 

5. It makes us acquainted with human nature, and enables 
us to judge how men will act in given circumstances, and 
to trace the connexion between cause and effect in human 
affairs. It serves to free the mind from many narrow and 
hurtful prejudices ; to teach us to admire what is praise- 
worthy wherever it may be found ; and to compare, on 
enlarged and liberal principles, other ages and countries 
with our own. 

6. History may be regarded as the school of politics, 
and, as such, is indispensable to rulers and statesmen ; it 
is also highly important to every citizen of a republic, in 
order to enable him to perform, in a manner honourable to 
himself and useful to the community, the duties of a free- 
man. By history we gain our knowledge of the constitu- 
tion of society ; of the reciprocal influence of national 
character, laws, and government ; of those causes and 
circumstances which have promoted the rise and pros- 
perity, or the decline and fall of states and empires. 

7. History shows us past ages, triumphs over time, and 
presents to our view the various revolutions which have 
taken place in the world. It furnishes us with the wisdom 
and experience of our ancestors, exhibits their living ac- 
tions, and enables us to profit by their successes and 
failures. It teaches us what has been done for the meliora- 
tion of mankind by the wisdom of Greece and Rome, by 
modern literature and science, by free government, and 
by true religion. 

8. It tends to strengthen the sentiments of virtue. In 
its faithful delineations, vice always appears odious, and 
virtue, not only desirable and productive of happiness, but 
also favourable to true honour and solid glory. The reader 
of history learns to connect true glory, not with the pos- 
session of wealth and power, but with the disinterested 
employment of great talents in promoting the good of 
mankind. 

9. History presents numerous instances in which, under 
the direction of Divjne Providence, events important to 
the welfare of the human race, have been brought about 
by inconsiderable means, contrary to the intentions of 
those who were the principal agents in them. 

^0. A knowledge of history has a tendency to render 



SOURCES OF HISTORY. 3 

US contented with our condition in life, by the views which 
it exhibits of the instability of human affairs. It teaches 
us that the highest stations are not exempt from severe 
trials ; that riches and power afford no assurance of happi- 
ness ; and that the greatest sovereigns have not unfrequently 
been more miserable than their meanest subjects. 



THE SOURCES OF HISTORY. 

Some of the principal sources of history, independent 
of authentic records or the narratives of those who were 
contemporary with the events which they relate, are the 
following : — 

1. Oral tradition. From this source Herod'otus derived 
the greater part of his history. It existed before the in- 
vention of the arts of writing, carving, and painting. 

2. Historical poems. These are common among all bar- 
barous nations. The Iliad and Odyssey of Homer were 
regarded by the Greeks as of historical authority ; and 
they comprise the only history extant, of what is called 
the heroic age of Greece. 

3. Visible monuments, as pillars, heaps of stones, and 
mounds of earth are used to perpetuate historical events 
among a barbarous people. 

4. Ruins, as those of Egypt, and of the cities of Balbec, 
Palmyra, and Persepolis, are lasting memorials of the pow- 
er, opulence, and taste of the builders. 

5. Giving names to countries, towns, &c., has been used, 
in all ages, as a method of perpetuating the memory of 
their planters or founders. 

6. Coins and medals are of great use in illustrating 
history, chronology, geography, and mythology, as well 
as the manners and customs of the nations of antiquity. 
These, however, belong to a people of some refinement. 
Ancient coins have been found buried in the earth at va- 
rious times, in considerable quantities. Vast numbers are 
now preserved belonging to different ages. The most 
ancient of those of which the antiquity can be ascertained, 
belong to the 5th century before the Christian era. 

7. Inscriptions on marbles. The most celebrated collec- 
tion of marbles made use of for the illustration of ancient 



4 HISTORY OF THE EARLY AGES. 

history, is that which is now in the possession of the Uni- 
versity of Oxford, in England, and which was brought from 
Greece by the earl of Arundel, and from him called th# 
Arundelian Marbles. 

8. The most important of these inscriptions is the 
Chronicle of Faros, which contains the chronology of 
Athens from the time of Cecrops, B. C. 1582, tu B. C. 264, 
at which latter period it is supposed to have been com- 
piled. The authority of this chronicle has been called in 
question by a number of learned men ; but it has been 
supported by many others, and the chronology of Greece, 
at present most generally received, has been, in a great 
measure, founded upon it. 



THE EARLY AGES. 

1. The earliest profane historian, whose works are ex- 
tant, is Herod'otus, who is styled the Father of History. 
His history was composed about 445 years B. C, and 
comprises every thing which he had an opportunity of learn- 
ing respecting the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, lonians, 
Lydians, Lycians, and Macedonians, from about the year 
713 to 479 before the Christian era. 

2. With regard, therefore, to all the preceding ages of 
the world, which, reckoning from the creation to the time 
when the narrative of Herod'otus begins, comprise, ac- 
cording to the common chronology, nearly 3,300 years, 
there exist no documents, with the exception of the Scrip- 
tures, i-eally deserving the name of history. The accounts 
which have been given of the events of this long series of 
ages, comprising more than half of the time which has 
elapsed since the origin of the human race, were drawn 
up by writers who lived long after the transactions of 
which they treat, and were compiled from scattered records, 
fragments, and traditions. 

3. Our knowledge, of course, of the early history of the 
world, the first settlement of the different portions of it, 
the primitive state of society, and the progress of mankind 
in the remotest ages, is extremely limited. The Scriptures 
axe the only authentic source of information on these sub- 
jects. The facts which they record, though not sufficiently 
numerous to satisfy curiosity, are yet, in the highest de- 
gree, interesting and ipiportant. 



EGYPT. 5 

4. Some of the most remarkabie events, previous to the 
commencement of profane history, recorded in the Bible, 
are the creation of the world, the fall of man, the 
deluge, the dispersion of mankind at Babel, the planting 
of different nations, the call of Abraham, the deliver- 
ance of the Israelites out of Egypt, and their settlement 
in Canaan. 

5. The historical information in the Scriptures relates 
principally to the Israelites or Jews. Notices of other na-< 
tions are seldom introduced, unless they were, in some 
way, connected with the descendants of Abraham. 



EGYPT. 

1. Egypt holds a conspicuous place in history, on ac- 
count of its great antiquity and early attainments in the 
arts. It has been styled the cradle of the sciences, and it 
claims the honour of the invention of the art of writing. 
At a period when Greece and Italy were immersed in 
barbarism, Egypt could boast of arts, learning, and civiliz- 
ation. It was the principal source from which the Grecians 
derived their information ; and after all its windings and 
enlargements, we may still trace the stream of our know- 
ledge to the banks of the Nile. 

2. It is a matter of regret that we have the means of 
obtaining but little knowledge respecting the ancient his- 
tory of Egypt. The early dynasties of the kingdom are 
involved in obscurity, and history throws little light on 
building of its most ancient cities, or the construction of 
those magnificent monuments, which show to how high a 
state of improvement the inhabitants, at a remote period, 
liad carried the arts, and which still continue to be objects 
of admiration and astonishment. 

3. The most celebrated of these worlis of ancient gran- 
deur, are hake Mceris, an immense artificial reservoir, the 
Labyrinth, an enormous structure of marble built under- 
ground, the Catacombs or mummy-pits, subterraneous gal- 
leries of prodigious extent, appropriated to the reception 
of the dead, and the Pyramids, a wonder both of the 
ancient and the modern world. 

1* 



g E<JYPT. 

4. The glory of Thebes, a city of Upper Egypt, famous 
for its hundred gates, the theme and admiration of ancient 
poets and historians, belongs to a period prior to the com- 
mencement of authentic history. It is recorded only in 
the dim lights of poetry and tradition, which might be 
suspected of fable, did not such mighty witnesses to their 
truth remain. Before the time of Herod'otus, Memphis 
had supplanted Thebes, and the Ptolemies afterwards re- 
moved the seat of empire to Alexandria. St^abo and 
Diodo'rus described Thebes under the name of Dios'poUs, 
and gave such magnificent descriptions of its monuments, 
as caused the fidelity of those writers to be called in ques- 
tion, till the observations of modern travellers proved their 
accounts to have fallen short of the reality. 

5. The place of alphabetic writing was supplied in an- 
cient Egypt by those rude pictures of visible objects, 
known by the name of hieroglyphics, a multitude of which 
^re still found sculptured on her walls and temples. 

6. A striking resemblance with regard to government, 
^religion, customs, and character, has been remarked be- 
tween the ancient Egyptians and several oriental nations, 
particularly the Chinese. The government was a here- 
ditary monarchy. The power of the sovereign was checked 
by the influence of the priests. 

7. Every person, not excepting the king, was, imme- 
diately after his death, subjected to a trial, in order to 
determine whether he was worthy of funeral rites. His 
whole life passed in review, and if pronounced virtuous, 
his embalmed body was, with various marks of honour, 
deposited in a sepulchre, which was often constructed at 
great expense ; but if his life had been vicious, or if he 
had died in debt, he was left unburied, and was supposed 
to be deprived of future happiness. 

8. Me'nes, supposed to be the same as Mis'raim, the son 
of Ham, is said to have founded the Egyptian monarchy, and 
to have been succeeded in the throne, by his posterity for 
many generations.' Afterwards we are told that a race of 
sovereigns, styled the Shepherd Kings, governed Egypt for 
the space of two or three centuries. 

9. The ancient Egyptians appear never to have been a 
warlike nation. Sesos'tris is the only king of the country 
whose name stands recorded in history as a great conqueror. 
He is5aid to have maintained a numerous army, and to have 



EGYPT. T 

conquered a great part of Asia ; but we have little certain 
knowledge of his achievements, or of the extent of his 
conquests. During his latter years, he is said to have 
renounced a life of warfare, and to have devoted himself 
to the internal improvement of his kingdom. The time 
of his reign is not well ascertained. He has been supposed 
to be the same as Shishak, who took Jerusalem, in the 
reign of Rehoboam : but Sir Isaac Newton supposes him 
to have been the same as Osi'ris ; and Mr. Whiston, the 
PJia'raoh, who was drowned in the Red Sea. 

10. The next sovereign who is particularly distinguished 
in history, was Nechus, or Pharaoh-Necho. He patronized 
navigation, and fitted out a fleet which sailed around 
Africa. He made war upon the Medes and Babylonians, 
and defeated Josiah, king of Judah, in the battle of Me- 
giddo. 

11. In the year B. C. 525, at the commencement of the 
reign of Psammeni'tus, the Persians, under Camby'scs, in- 
vaded Egypt, and laid siege to Pelu'sinm. Taking advan- 
tage of the Egyptian superstition, the invaders placed in 
front of their army a variety of dogs, cats, and other ani- 
mals, which were held sacred by the besieged ; and the 
Egyptians not daring to injure the sacred animals, the 
Persians entered Pelu'sium without resistance. Soon after 
Camby'ses took Memphis, and reduced Egypt to a prov- 
ince of the Persian monarchy. 

12. It was easily wrested from the sway of Persia by 
Alexander the Great: after his death it fell to the share of 
Ptol'emy ; and under him, and his successors of ihe same 
name, Egypt regained her ancient lustre, and rose to a 
height in science and commerce, which no other part of 
the world then equalled. 



THE PHCENICIANS. 

1. The Phoenicians were among the most early civilized 
nations : their principal cities, Tyre and Sidon, were two 
of the most ancient we read of in history ; and, in remote 
agesj they were the most considerable seats of commerce it 
the world. The inhabitants of PhceniQia are styled Ca'naan' 



§ ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

ites in the Scriptures, and were a commercial people ia 
the time of Abraham. 

2. The Phoenicians were the reputed inventers of glass, 
purple, and coinage ; the invention of letters has also 
been attributed to them, as well as to the Egyptians ; and 
to Cadmus is ascribed the honour of having first carried 
letters into Greece. The fragments of Sanconi' atlion, a 
Phoenician historian, are supposed, if genuine, to be the 
most ancient monuments of writing extant, next to the 
earlier books of the Old Testament. 

3. The Phoenicians sent out a number of colonies to 
Cyprus, Rhodes, Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain ; and 
the foundation of Carthage is attributed to Dido, sister of 
Pygma'Eon, king of Tyre, with a company of adventurers. 
Tyre suffered two memorable sieges and captures ; the 
first by Nebuchadnezzar, and the second by Alexander 
the Great. 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

1. The empire oi Assyria derived its name from Ashur, 
the son of S hem, and the reputed founder of Nineveh, its chief 
city. '^I'he foundation of Babylon is ascribed to Nimrod, 
who was the grandson of Ham, and considered by many 
the same as the Belus of profane historians. These two 
cities are supposed to have been founded nearly at the 
same time, and not long after the dispersion of Babel. 
But of their history, for many ages after their foundation, 
very little is known with certainty, and the accounts given 
of them by ancient authors are inconsistent with each other. 

2. It is commonly supposed that Assyria and Babylon 
were originally distinct kingdoms, and so continued till Nimis 
conquered Babylon, and annexed it to the Assyrian empire. 
According to Dr. Gillies, however, only one monarchy ex- 
isted at the same time, but divided into three great eras ; the 
first commencing with Nimrod, when Babylon was the seat of 
empire ; the second with Ninus, whose capital was Ninetwh; 
and the third beginning after the death of Sardanapa'lus, 
when Babylon again became the metropolis. 

Ninus and Samir' amis are the hero and heroine of the 
old Assyrian and Babylonian chronicles ; but the account 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 9 

v^en of them appears to partake more of fable than of 
credible history. So great is the uncertainty respecting 
them, that different historians and chronologists differ no 
less than a thousand years with regard to the time when 
they flourished. 

3. Ninus is represented as a great and powerful sovereign, 
and is said to have enlarged and embellished the city of 
Nineveh. After having made extensive conquests, he 
espoused Semir'amis, who succeeded him in the throne. 
She is described not only as surpassing all her sex in wit 
and beauty, but also as possessing unbounded ambition, 
and extraordinary talents for government and war. She 
enlarged Babylon, and rendered it the most magnificent 
city in the world ; and after a reign of great splendour, 
was succeeded by her son Nini/as. 

4. From the time of Ninyas to the overthrow of the mon- 
archy, under Sardanapa'lus, a period of several centuries, 
little or nothing is known respecting the history of Assyria 
and Babylon. 

5. The name of Sardanapa'lus is almost a proverbial 
reproach. He is said to have so degraded himself as to 
adopt the dress and occupations of a female, and to have 
passed his life in the most disgraceful effiminacy and vo- 
luptuousness in the company of his wives and concubines. 
At length Arhaces, governor of Media, and Belesis, a priest 
of Babylon, disgusted with his inglorious and shameful life, 
excited a rebellion against him. After sustaining a defeat, 
Sardanapa'lus, in order to avoid falling into the hands of 
the conquerors, set fire to his palace, and burnt himself, 
together with his women, and all his treasures. 

6. The empire was then divided into three kingdoms, 
among the three conspiratoi-s, Arbaces becoming king of 
Media, Bel'esis of Babylon, and Pul or Phul of Assyria. 

7. The successors of Pul were, 1st, Tig' lath-pile' ser, who 
took possession of that part of the kingdom of Israel which 
was east of the Jordan ; 2d, Shalmane'ser, who put an end 
to the kingdom of Israel, and carried the inhabitants cap- 
tive; 3d, Sennache'rib, who laid siege to Jerusalem, in the 
time of HezeJdah, but was compelled to return in disgrace, 
185,000 men of his army being destroyed in a miraculous 
manner in one night ; 4th, Esarhad'don, who defeated 
Manassehf king of Judah, and carried him captive to 
Babylon. 



10 PERSIA. 

8. Not long after the death of Esarhad'don, Nabopolas' sar, 
©r Nebuchadnezzar, having got possession of Babylon, being 
assisted by Cym'ares, king of Media, besieged and des- 
troyed Nineveh, put an end to the Assyrian monarchy, and 
made Babylon the seat of empire. 

9. He was succeeded by his son, Nebuchadnezzar II., who 
took Jerusalem, and carried the Jews captive to Babylon. 
He had a long and signal reign, the particulars of which 
are recorded in the book of Daniel. 

10. During the reign of Belshazzar, who succeeded to the 
throne a few years after the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the 
Persians, under Cyrus^ after a siege of two years, having 
turned the course of the Euphrates, entered the city through 
the dried channel, and took it while the inhabitants were 
engaged in feasting and riot. Belshazzar was slain, and 
with him ended the kingdom of Babylon. 



PERSIA. 

1. The history of Persia, prior to the reign of Cyrus the 
Great, is involved in obscurity and fable. It was originally 
called Elam, and the inhabitants Elamites, who were de- 
scendants of Shem. In the earlier ages it was of small 
extent, but under the reign of Cyrus, who was the founder 
of the great Persian empire, it became the most powerful 
and extensive sovereignty on the globe, comprising Persia, 
Media, Parthia, Assyria or Babylonia, Syria, and Asia 
Minor ; and to these Egypt was added by Camby'ses. 

2. For the history of Persia, from the reign of Cyrus to 
the overthrow of the empire by Alexander the Great, we 
are indebted chiefly to the Greeks. In the account of the 
same period by the Persian writers, there is much of fable, 
and a total neglect of dates, and the names of the sove- 
reigns are different from those given by the Greek historians. 
The narratives of these two classes of writers differ in many 
material points. The Greek authors, though they throw 
a veil of doubt over their records by their exaggerations, 
especially where the honour of their own country is con- 
cerned, are, nevertheless, ^teemed as entitled to superior 
oredi* 



PERSIA. 11 

3. Cyrus is described as possessed of great talents, both 
as a warrior and a sovereign. Having subdued all the 
nations from the jEge'an sea to the Euphra'tes, he, together 
with his uncle, Cyax'ares II., king of the Medes, took 
Babylon, and conquered the Assyrian empire. Cyax'ares 
dying soon after, Cyrus reigned sole monarch over the 
united kingdoms, during seven years ; in the first of which 
he published the famous edict for the return of the Jews, 
and the rebuilding of Jerusalem. 

4. Herod'otus, Xen'ophon, and Cte'sias, in their accounts 
of the character and history of Cyrus, differ in many par- 
ticulars. That of Xen'ophon has been followed by Rollin 
and other moderns ; yet it is supposed to have been the 
design of Xen'ophon not to exhibit a faithful record of 
facts, but to delineate the model of a perfect prince, and a 
well regulated monarchy. 

5. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Camhy' ses, a cruel 
tyrant, whose principal exploit was the conquest of Egypt. 
On his death, Smerdis usurped the crown ; but after a reign 
of seven months, he was assassinated, and Dari'us was 
elected sovereign. It was his army that invaded Greece, 
and was defeated at Mar'athon. The history of Persia, 
from this time till the overthrow of the monarchy, is much 
connected with that of Greece. 

6. Darius was succeeded by his son, Xei'xes I., who made 
the second great invasion of Greece, and suffered a series 
of defeats, with immense losses. He left the empire to 
his son, Artaxerx'es I., who had a long and peaceful 
reign. 

7- The other two principal sovereigns were Artaxerx' es 
II., during whose reign 'Ken' ophon made the famous retreat 
with 10,000 Greeks ; and Dari'us Codom'anus, the last 
sovereign of Persia, who was defeated by Alexander, with 
whose death the Persian empire terminated. 



12 GREECE. 

GREECE. 

SECTION I. 

Greece ; the Country, and the People. 

1. Greece, the most celebrated country of antiquity, was 
of very inconsiderable extent, scarcely exceeding, in size, 
the half of the state of New York. It was bouuded on all 
sides by the sea, except on the north, where it bordered 
upon * Macedonia and Epi'rus. Its general aspect is rug- 
ged, but its climate is highly propitious ; and no other 
country of antiquity was so favourably situated for holding 
commerce with other ancient nations. 

2. This country occupies but a speck on the map of the 
world, yet it fills a space in the eye of taste and philoso- 
phy, incomparably greater than the mightiest empires that 
have overshadowed the earth. The inhabitants were re- 
Downed above all other ancient nations for genius, learn- 
ing, and attainments in the arts ; and they have been the 
teachers of all succeeding ages. Whatever, therefore, 
relates to Greece, is rendered peculiarly interesting by 
numerous associations. 

3. Greece comprised numerous small independent states, 
which were more commonly designated by the name of 
their chief city, than by that of the country or province. 
These states difiered from each other in forms of govern- 
ment, and character and manners of the people. But for 
their mutual defence, they were united in a confederacy 
by the council of the AmpMctyons, as well as by a common 
language and religion, and by various public games, to 
which, in time of peace, they all resorted. 

4. The only form of government in Greece, in the early 
ages, appears to have been limited monarchy ; but in 
process of time, monarchy was abolished, and republican 
forms were every where prevalent. 

5. The history of these little republics is calculated to 
awaken perpetual and powerful interest. They underwent 
many revolutions, and were frequently engaged in war 

♦ Greece, in its most extensive sense, included Macedonia and 
Epi'rus. The Greeks also established colonies in Thr.ce, Asia Minor, 
Italy, Sicily, he. ; so that tiiey were widely spread over territories 
beyond the limits of the country, which is properly styled Greece. 



GREECE. 13 

with each other, as well as with foreign nations ; so that 
iheir history presents scenes continually new and shifting, 
and abounding in those strange and sudden reverses, which 
agitate and interest the mind of man. 

6. Greece was called by the natives Hellas, and the in- 
habitants Helle'nes ; but by the poets they were often called 
Dan'ai, Pelas'gi, Argi'vi, Achi'vi, AcIkb'i, &c. The original 
inhabitants, generally considered as the descendants of 
Javan, the son of Japhef, were extremely barbarous, living 
in caves and huts, feeding upon acorns, and clothing them- 
selves with the skins of wild beasts. 

SECTION II. 

The History of Greece divided info Periods. 

1. The history of Greece may be distinguished into two 
general divisions; 1st. The period of uncei'tain history/, ex- 
tending from the earliest accounts of the country to the 
first war with Persia, in the year B. C. 490 ; 2d. The 
period of authentic history, extending from the Persian 
invasion to the final subjugation of Greece by the Romans, 
B. C. 146. 

2. The first period, according to the most generally 
received chronology, reckoning ft-om the foundation of 
Sic'yon, the most ancient kingdom of Greece, comprises 
the space of l600 years. This long succession of ages 
is involved in obscurity and fable. There are no records 
relatijig to it that really deserve the name of history ; and 
the accounts which have been given of its events, were 
drawn up by writers who lived long after the transactions 
of which they treat, and who possessed few materials for 
authentic history. 

3. Th^s period may be distinguished into four subdi- 
visions, which are marked by some peculiar historical 
features. The 1st, reaching from the earliest accounts of 
Greece to the Trojan war, B. C. 1184; a period which 
may be termed, by way of eminence, the fabulous age: 
the 2d, extending fom the expedition against Troy 
to the death ef Homer, a period generally called the 
heroic age, cf \vL;>h the only history is contained in the 
poems \,: tl.f^ II: d r-nd Od'yssey : the 3d, comprising 
the y\y:..ce of time fror. '^-o death of Hr.rner to the death 
of L/curgus, a penod .vhich has been denomniated the 

2 



14 GREECE. 

era of revolutions, of which scarcely any species of history 
exists : the 4th, reaching from the death of Lycurgus 
to the first invasion of Greece by the Persians, a period 
which has been styled the era of traditionary history, pos- 
sessing a considerable degree of credibility. 

4. The second general division, the period of authentic 
history, extends from the first invasion of Greece by the 
Persians, to its final subjugation by the Romans, a period 
of 344 years. The history of this portion is luminous and 
connected beyond that of any other portion of Pagan 
antiquity, having been recorded by writers of the greatest 
ability, who were contemporary with the events which 
they relate, and many of whom bore a distinguished part 
in them. 

5. This period also may be divided into four parts, dis- 
tinguished rather by political, than historical characteris- 
tics : the 1st, reaching from the Persian invasion, B. C. 
490, to the commencement of the Peloponnesian war, a 
period of 59 years, the era of Grecian unanimity and tri- 
umphs : the 2d, extending from the beginning of the Pelo- 
ponniesian war to the accession of Philip of Macedon, B. C. 
360, a period of 71 years, the era of civil wars and intestine 
commotions among the states of Greece : the 3d, reaching 
from the accession of Philip to the death of Alexander 
the Great, B. C. 324, a period of 36 years, distinguished 
by the entire ascendency of Greece, or rather, of Macedon, 
over Persia : the 4th, extending from the death of Alex- 
ander to the final subjugation of Greece by the Romans, 
B. C. 146, a period of 1/8 years, the era of degeneracy, 
turbulence, and ineffectual struggles. During the greater 
part of this period, the destinies of Greece were directed 
by foreign influence, and were placed successively under 
the protection of Macedonia, Egypt, and Rome. 

SECTION 111. 

Fabulous Age. Foundation of Cities and Institutions. 
Argonautic Expedition. 

1. The fabulous age comprises the period of the found- 
ation of the principal cities, the commencement of civiliz- 
ation, the introduction of letters and the arts, and the 
establishment of the most celebrated institutions of the 
country. 



GREECE. 15 

2. Sig'yon, the most ancient city, is said to have been 
founded by Mgi'alus ; Jrgos, by In'achus, the last of the 
Titans ; Athens, by Cecrops, an eminent legislator, with a 
colony from Egypt ; Thebes, by Cadmus, a Phoenician, 
who first introduced letters into Greece ; Cor'inth, by 
Sis'yphus ; Myce'nce, by Per' sens; and Lacedce' mon, by 
Leiex. 

3. Some of the memorable events of this period were 
the deluges of Og'yges and Deuca'lion; the institution of 
the Olympic, Isthmian, Pythian, and Nemcb'an games ; of 
the laws of Minos in Crete, the court of Areop'agus, the 
Eleusinian mysteries, the Oracle of Delphi, and the coun- 
cil of the Amphictyons. This period a!so embraces the 
marvellous exploits of Her'cules, The' sens, and other fabul- 
ous heroes. 

4. The first great enterprise recorded of the Greeks, 
was the Argonautic expedition, the account of which ap- 
pears to partake much more of fable than of history. It 
was commanded by Jason, the son of the king of lolchos, 
accompanied by about fifty of the most illustrious young 
men of Greece : among these heroes were Her'cules, The'- 
sens, Castor and Pollux, Or'pheus, the physician JBscu- 
la'pius, and the astronomer Chiron. 

5. They were called Argonauts, from their sailing in 
the ship Argo, which is said to have been the first sea 
vessel ever built. They sailed from lolchos to Cholchis, 
for the purpose of recovering the golden fleece of a ram 
which originally belonged to their country. The fleece 
is represented to have been guarded by bulls that breathed 
fire, and by a dragon that never slept. 

SECTION IV. 

The Heroic Age. Trojan War. Return of the Heraclidce, 

1. The heroic age has been compared to the age of 
chivalry ; and there has been supposed to exist a striking- 
resemblance between the manners and sentiments of the 
Greeks at that period, and those of the Gothic nations of 
Europe ia the middle ages ; except that the latter display- 
■ed more generosity in war, and more gentleness to the 
female sex, than the former. 



16 GREECE. 

2. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority 
of Homer, and forms the subject of his great poem, the' 
Iliad. 

3. Hel'en, the daughter of Tyn'darus, king of Sparta, 
was the most beautiful woman of her age, and her hand 
was solicited by the most illustrious princes of Greece. 
Her father bound all her suitors, by a solemn oath, that 
th^y should abide by the choice that Helen should make 
of one among them ; and that, should she be stolen from 
the arms of her husband, they would all assist, with their 
utmost strength, to recover her. Menela'us was the fa- 
voured individual, and after his nuptials with Helen were 
celebrated, Tyn'darus resigned the crown to his son-in- 
law. 

4. Soon afterwards, Paris, the son of Priam, king of 
Troy, visited Sparta, and was received with every mark 
of respect, by king Menela'us ; but he abused the hospi- 
tality which was shown him, by persuading Helen to elope 
with him to Troy ; and, together with her, carried off a 
considerable treasure. 

5. This act of treachery and ingratitude roused the re- 
sentment of the princes of Greece, and agreeably to their 
engagement, they immediately united to avenge the out- 
rage. A fleet of about 1200 open vessels conveyed an 
army of 100,000 men to the Trojan coast. Agamem'non, 
king of Argos, brother of Menela'us, was chosen com- 
mander in chief. Some of the other most celebrated 
princes, who distinguished themselves in this war, were 
Achilles, the bravest of the Greeks, Ajax, Menela'us, JJlys'- 
scs, Nestor, and Diome'cles. 

6. The Trojans were commanded by Hector, the son of 
Priam, assisted by Paris, Deiph'ohus, Mne'as, and >S'ar- 
pe'clon. After a siege of ten years, the city was taken by 
stratagem, plundered, and burnt to the ground. The 
venerable king Priam was s^ain, and his family led into 
captivity. 

7. About 80 years after the destruction of Tro}', began 
the civil war of the Heracli'dcB, usually called the return 
of the Heracli'dcB into Peloponne'sus. 

8. Her'cules, sovereign of Myce'nae, a city of Pelopon- 
ne'sus, was banished from his country, with all his family ; 
while the crown was seized by At'reus, the son of Pelops. 



GREECE, tjr 

After the period of a century, the HeracliMae, or descend- 
ants of Her'cules, returned to Peloponne'sus, and having 
subdued all their enemies, took possession of the country. 
A part of the inhabitants were reduced to slavery ; the 
rest being expelled, retired to Asia Minor, and possessed 
themselves of a country afterwards called Ionia. 

9. This revolution in Peloponne'sus not only changed 
the inliabitants and government of the country, and estab- 
lished new divisions of the Greeks, but checked the pro- 
gress of the arts and civilization. 

SECTION V. 

Sparta or Lacedamon : Institutions of hycurgus. 

1. The two leading states of Greece were Athens and 
Sparta; the latter distinguished for military valour and 
discipline ; the former for literature and the arts. Their 
different characters and habits were formed, in a great 
degree, by the institutions of their respective legislators, 
Lycurgus of Sparta, and Solon of Athens. 

2. After the return of the Heracli'dee, the government 
of Sparta was administered by the two sons of Aristode'mus, 
who reigned jointly ; and this double monarchy was trans- 
mitted to the descendants of each for many ages. 

3. Lycurgus, the celebrated Spartan legislator, was the 
brother of one of the kings ; and on the death of the 
sovereign, he became protector. The government of Sparta 
being now in the greatest disorder, Lycurgus, in whom, 
on account of his great abilities and integrity, the highest 
confidence was reposed, was intrusted with the duty of 
reforming the constitution. 

4. He wrought an entire change in the form of govern-^ 
ment, and in the manners of the people He instituted a 
a senate of 28 members, elected from the nobles. The 
two kings were continued, but were nothing more than 
hereditary and presiding members of the senate, generals 
of the army, and high priests of ihe nation. He divided 
the territory of the republic into 39,000 equal shares 
among all the free citizens. 

5. The use of gold and silver was prohibited, and iron 
money was substituted in their place Distinction of dress 
was abolished. All the citizens, not excepting even the kings, 
were required to eat at the public tables, where all luxury 

2* 



Ig GREECE. 

and excess wore to be avoided, black broth being the prin- 
cipal article of food. 

6. Every citizen was to be wholly devoted to the service 
of the state, whether in peace or war. Infants, as soon as 
born, were carefully inspected, and those that were well 
formed, were delivered to public nurses ; and at the age 
of seven years, they were introduced into the public schools, 
where they were all educated on the same plan : those 
that were deformed or sickly, were exposed to perish. 

7. Letters were taught for use, but not for ornament ; 
and the Spartans, while they were distinguished as a shrewd 
and sagacious people, were never eminent for learning : 
and no book has been transmitted to modern times written 
by a genuine Spartan. DifTuseness of language and con- 
versation was discountenanced, and the Lacedaemonians 
were noted for their concise or laconic speech. 

8. The young were taught especially to respect the aged, 
and to cherish an ardent love of their country: they were 
formed to a high principle of honour, and to great sensi- 
bility to applause and to shame. They were accustomed 
to sleep on rushes, and were supplied with very plain and 
scanty food ; but were encouraged to steal whatever they 
could, provided they accomplished the theft without being 
detected. 

9. The institutions of Lycurgus were adapted to form 
a nation of soldiers ; and Sparta was rendered a military 
school on a large scale. War was considered the great 
business of life, and to be terrible to their enemies the 
great object of the citizens. The severer virtues, such as 
patriotism, public spirit, courage, fortitude, and contempt 
of danger, suffering, and death, were cherished ; while all 
the softer virtues and domestic affections were sacrificed. 

10. Young women, as well as young men, were trained 
to athletic exercises. The manners of the Lacedaemonian 
women were loose and indelicate. They were destitute 
of the virtues which most adorn the female character — 
modesty, tenderness, and sensibility. Their education was 
calculated to give them a masculine energy ; to render them 
bold, hardy, and courageous ; and to fill them with admira- 
tion of military glory. Mothers exulted when their sons fell 
Jionourably in battle. " Return with your shield, or ojj 
your shield," sjiid a Spartan mother to her son; wbea 



GREECE. ig 

he was going to meet the enemy ; that is, " conquer or 
die." 

11. The government of Lacedae'mon acquired solidi- 
ty, while the other states were torn by internal dissen- 
sions. For the long period of 500 years, the institutions 
of Lycurgus continued in force ; the power and influence 
of Sparta were felt throughout Greece ; and for a consid- 
erable part of that period, her glory eclipsed that of the 
other states. But in process of time, the severe manners 
of her warriors were relaxed ; and during the administra- 
tion of some of her later kings, changes were introduced 
into the laws and institutions, particularly in the time of 
hysander, whose conquests filled his country with wealth, 
^nd opened the sources of luxury and avarice* 

SECTION VI. 

Athens : Codrus ; Draco : Solon and his Institutions : Pi- 
sistratus ; Pisistratidce. 

1. Ath'ens, the capital of At'tica, was the most celebrated 
city of Greece. It was distinguished for its commerce, 
wealth, and magnificence ; and was the chief seat of learn- 
ing and the arts. 

2. The last king of Ath'ens was Co'drus, who, in the 
war with the Heracli'dae, sacrificed himself for the good of 
his country. After his death, the regal government was 
abolished, and the state was governed by magistrates, styled 
archons The office was at first for life ; afterwards re- 
duced to a period of ten years ; at last it became annual, 
and was divided among nine persons. 

3. T^e first code of written laws which the Athenians 
possessed, was prepared by Draco, a man of stern and 
rigid temper. These laws punished all crimes with death ; 
and, on account of their sanguinary character, are said to 
have been written in blood. Draco being asked why he 
was so severe in his punishments, replied, that " the small- 
est crimes deserved death, and he had no higher punish- 
ment for the greatest." But the great severity of these 
laws prevented their being fully executed. 

4. The celebrated Solon, one of the seven wise men of 
Greece, being raised to the archonship, was intrusted with 
the care of framing for his country a new constitution, and 
a new system of laws. His disposition was mild and 



20 



GREECE; 



temporizing, and he did not, like Lycurgus, attempt ta 
operate a total change in the manners of his countrymen, 
but accommodated his system to their prevailing habits 
and desires. Of his laws he said, " if they are not the 
best possible, they are the best the Athenians are capable 
of receiving." 

5. Solon vested the supreme power in an assembly of 
the people, composed of the freemen whose age exceeded 
30 years. By them all laws were enacted ; every public 
measure determined ; all appointments made ; and to them 
an appeal lay from all courts of justice. He instituted a 
senate or council of 400, afterwards increased to 500; 
restored the Areop'agus, and divided the people into four 
classes, according to their wealth. 

6. Commerce and agriculture were encouraged ; indus- 
try and economy enforced ; ingratitude, disobedience to 
parents, and opprobrious language punished. The father 
who had taught his son no trade, could not claim a support 
from him in his old age. The body of laws which Solon 
established has been so highly esteemed, that it has formed 
the basis of many subsequent systems of legislation. 

7. The different laws of Athens and Sparta produced, 
in process of time, a corresponding difference in the char- 
acter and manners of the people. At Athens the arts 
were in the highest esteem ; at Sparta they wore despised. 
At Athens peace was the natural state of the republic, 
and the refined enjoyment of life the aim of the people. 
At Sparta war was the great business of life, and no amuse- 
ments were practised except such as were military or 
athletic. An Athenian was characterized by luxury ; a 
Spartan by frugality : the virtues of the latter were more 
severe, those of the former more agreeable. They were 
both, however, equally jealous of liberty, and equally 
brave in war. 

8. Before the death of Solon, Pisis'tratus, a citizen of 
great wealth and eloquence, by courting popularity in va- 
rious ways, found means to raise himself to the sovereign 
power, which he and his sons retained for 50 years. He 
exercised a munificent and splendid dominion, encouraged 
the arts and sciences, and is said to have first collected 
the poems of Homer into one volume, which before were 
merely repeated in detached portions. 



GREECE. 21 

9. Pisis'tratus transmitted the sovereignty to his sons 
Hip'pias and Hippar'chus, called the Pisistrat' Ida;. They 
governed with moderation, yet the name of king or tyrant 
being odious to the Athenians, they were dethroned by 
liarmo'dius and Aristogi'ton. Hippar'chus was slain ; and 
Hippias fled to Dari'us king of Persia, who was then 
meditating the conquest of Greece, and he was afterwards 
killed in the battle of Mar'athon, fighting against his 
countrymen. 

SECTION VII. 

Greece invaded hy the Persians under Cyrus : Battle of' 
Marathon : Miltiades. Persian Invasion under Xerxes : 
Themistocles ; Aristides : Battle of ThermopylcB ; Leoni- 
das : Battles of Salamis, Platcea, and Mycale : Cimon. 

1. The period from the first Persian invasion to the be-, 
ginning of the Peloponnesian war, is esteemed the most 
glorious age of Greece. The series of victories which 
the inhabitants obtained over the Persians, are the most 
splendid recorded in history. 

2. Persia, at this period, was by far the most powerful 
empire in the world, embracing the territories included in 
modern Persia, Turkey in Asia, Egypt, a great part of 
Tartary, and part of Arabia. The Greek colonies in Asia 
Minor were subject to the Persians, who had likewise 
made a conquest of Thrace : Macedonia had also acknowl- 
edged subjection ; so that the Persian dominion extended 
over a large portion of the Grecian people, and even bor- 
dered on the country of Greece. 

3. The Asiatic Greeks, in attempting to throw off the 
Persian yoke, were assisted by the Athenians ; but Darius, 
king of Persia, having speedily reduced his revolted sub- 
jects to submission, formed a determination to make an 
entire conquest of Greece. In this design he was en- 
couraged and assisted by the exiled tyrant Hippia?. 

4. Dari'us despatched heralds to each of the Grecian 
states, demanding earth and water, as an acknowledgment 
of his supremacy. . Thebes, together with a number of the 
other cities, and most of the islands, submitted ; but the 
Athenians and Lacedaemonians were so indignant, that, 
forgetting the laws of nations and of humanity, they put the 
heralds to death with the utmost ignominy. At one place 



22 • GREECE. 

they were thrown into a pit, at the other into a well, and 
told there to take their earth and water. 

5. Dari'us began his hostile attack both by sea and land. 
The first Persian fleet, under the command of Mardonius, 
was wrecked in a storm in doubling the promontory of 
Athos, with a loss of no less than 300 vessels : a second, 
of 600 sail, ravaged the Grecian islands ; while an im- 
mense army, consisting, according to the lowest statements, 
of ancient historians, of 110,000 men, commanded by 
Artapher'nes and Datis, invaded Attica. This formidable 
host was met on the plains of Mar'athon by the Athenian 
army, stated at only 10,000, under the command of Mil- 
ti'ades, who gained a decisive victory, and drove the routed 
invaders to their ships. The loss of the Persians was 6,400 ; 
that of the Athenians only 192. 

6. Athens was, at this time, unhappily divided into fac- 
tions ; and the merit of Milti'ades, so signally displayed inr 
the great victory of Mar'athon, was, through the influence 
of party-spirit, repaid by his country with the naost shock- 
ing ingratitude. Having afterw^irds failed in an attack on 
the island of Paros, he was accused of treason, and though 
acquitted of capital ofiience, yet he was condemned to pay 
a fine of 50 talents (about ^50,000). Being unable to 
raise so large a sum, it was ordered by the assembly that 
he should be carried to the common prison. In a few 
days he died of the wounds which he received at Paros ; 
yet the fine was exacted of his family, and afterwards paid 
by his son Cimon. 

7. The two parties into which Athens was divided, were 
headed by Themis' tochs and Aristi'des, both of whom had 
distinguished themselves as commanders in the battle of 
Mar'athon. Aristi'des, who, on account of his stern in- 
tegrity, received the surname of the Just, was, through 
the intrigues of his great rival, banished for ten years by 
the Ostracism. While the people were giving their votes 
for his exile, it happened that a citizen, who was unable to 
write, and did not know Aristi'des personally, brought his 
shell to him, and requested that he would write the name 
of Aristi'des upon it. " Why, what harm has Aristi'des 
ever done you ? " said he ; " No harm at all," answered 
the citizen ; " but I cannot br&r to hear him continually 
called the Just." Aristi'des smiled, and taking the shell, 
wrote his name upon it, and quietly went into banishment,; 
but h§ was recalled soon after the renewal of the war. 



GKEEGE. 23 

8. The death of Dari'us, and other circumstances, oc- 
casioned the discontinuance of the war for several years. 
But Xerxes, the young Persian monarch, having ascended 
the throne, was eager to punish Athens, and subdue Greece. 
Having spent four years in preparation, he collected an 
army greater than the world ever saw, either before or 
since. According to Herod*otus, the whole number of 
fighting men, in the army and fleet, exceeded 2,000,000 ; 
and, including the retinue of sutlers, slaves, and women, 
the whole multitude is said to have exceeded 5,000,000. 

9. The fleet consisted of upwards of 1,200 galleys of war, 
besides a greater number of transports and smaller vessels. 
A canal, navigable for the largest galleys, was formed 
across the isthmus which joins Athos to the continent ; and 
for the conveyance of the army, two bridges of boats were 
extended across the Hel'lespont, at a point where the 
width is seven furlongs. 

10. Xerxes having taken a station on an eminence, in 
order to gratify his vanity by viewing the vast assemblage 
which he had collected — the earth covered with his troops, 
and the sea with his vessels — is said to have been suddenly 
aflected, so much so, as to shed tears, upon reflecting, that 
in the space of one hundred years, not one of the many 
thousands would be alive. 

11. The Greeks were slow in concerting measures for 
their common defence, and some of the smaller republics 
submitted to the Persians. In resisting the invading ene- 
my, the Athenians took the lead, and they were fortunate 
in having for their commander Themis' tocles, who, by his 
extraordinary talents, sustained the glory of his country. 

12. Leon'idas, king of Sparta, with a small army, under- 
took the defence of the narrow pass or defile of Ther- 
mop'ylm. Xerxes, having approached this place, sent a 
herald to Leon'idas, commanding him to deliver up his 
arms ; to whom the Spartan replied, with laconic brevity, 
" Come and take them." For two days the Persians strove 
to force their way, but were repulsed with great slaughter. 
But a by-path having been discovered by the enemy, the 
defence of the pass became impossible. 

13. Leon'idas, foreseeing certain destruction, resolved, 
in obedience to a law of Sparta, which forbade its soldiers, 
in any case, to flee from an enemy, to devote his life to 
•the honour and service of his country : and animated by 



24 GREECE 

his example, the 300 Spartans under his command, 'de- 
termined with hira to abide the event. With the fury of 
men resolved to die, and also to sell their lives at the 
dearest rate, they fell upon the Persian camp, and were 
all cut off, after having made a dreadful havoc of the 
enemy. Two only of the Spartans, these having been 
accidentally absent, survived the battle. A monument was 
erected on the spot, bearing this inscription, written by 
Simon'ides : " O stranger ! tell it at Lacedse'mon, that we 
died here in obedience to her laws." 

14. The Persians now poured down upon Attica, ravag- 
ing the country with fire and sword. The inhabitants of 
Athens, after conveying their women and children to the 
islands for security, betook themselves to the fleet, aban- 
doning the city, which the Persians pillaged and burnt. 

15. Preparations were now made for a great naval bat- 
tle. The Persian fleet consisted of 1,200 galleys; that of 
the Greeks of 300, and was commanded by Themis' tocles 
and Aristi'des. An engagement took place in the straits of 
Sal'omis, where it was impossible for the Persians to bring 
their numerous ships regularly into action, and they were 
defeated v/ith immense loss. The king, who had seated 
himself on an eminence to witness the battle, terrified at 
the result, fled with precipitation across the Hel'lespont to 
his own dominions. 

16. Xerxes left Mardo'nius with 300,000 men to com- 
plete the conquest of Greece in the following summer. 
This army was met at Platcea, early in the next season, 
by the combined forces of Athens and Lacedasmon, con- 
sisting of 110,000 men, under the command of Aristi'des 
and Pcmsa'jiias, and was totally defeated, Mardo'nius, to- 
gether with most of his men, being slain. 

17. On the same day of the great victory of Platse'a, the 
Greeks engaged and destroj'ed the Persian fleet at Myc'ale. 
"The Persian army was now comple' ely destroyed, Xerxes, 
having been entirely frustrated in all his mad schemes, 
soon after ended his life by assassination, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Artaxcrx' es Longim' anus. 

18. The Persian war, however, was not yet terminated. 
The Greeks, in thc^r turn, became the assailants and in- 
vaders. Tiiey undeitook to defend the loniiius, who had 
thrown off the Persian yoke. The Sp^rt^ns commanded 
by Pa«sa'>iias, and the Athenians by Ansu'dcs and Ci'mon,, 



GREECE. 25 

advanced to the island of Cyprus, which they took, and 
set free ; and having taken and plundered the city of By- 
zan'tium, they returned with immense booty. 

19. Themis' tocles, who had been the most distinguished 
commander in this war, after the destruction of the Persian 
army, became obnoxious on account of his haughtiness and 
ambition, and in his turn suffered banishment from his 
country. He retired into the Persian dominions, and died 
in exile. Pausa'nius, also, corrupted by riches and power, 
oflfered to betray Greece to the Persians, on condition of 
receiving in marriage the daughter of their king. Being 
convicted of this treachery, he took refuge in the temple 
of Minerva, where he was doomed to perish by cold and 
hunger. 

20. After the banishment of Themis'tocles, the affairs 
of Athens were directed by Aristi'des, who was succeeded 
in his authority by Ci'mon, the son of Milti'ades, one of 
the most illustrious statesmen and warriors of Greece. 
Supplanted in the public favour by the arts of Per'icles, 
Ci'mon suffered a temporary exile, to return only with 
higher popularity, and to signalize himself still more by 
his splendid services to his ungrateful country. 

21. He attacked and totally destroyed the Persian fleet 
of 300 sail ; and landing in Cilicia, completed his triumph, 
by defeating an army of 300,000 Persians on the Eurym'- 
edon. Artaxerxes now sued for peace, which was granted, 
on condition that he would give freedom to all the Grecian 
cities of Asia, and that the fleets of Persia should not ap- 
proach the coasts of Greece. 

22. The last fifty years were the period of the highest 
glory of the Greeks ; and they owed their prosperity to" 
their union. But after the war with Persia had ceased, 
this union was dissolved ; and the jealousies and ambitious 
views of the rival slates were again revived. Athens had 
been rebuilt, and surrounded with a strong wall. But to 
this Sparta had meanly objected ; and Athens saw with 
pleasure the depopulation of Sparta by an earthquake, in 
which about 20,000 lives were lost. 

23. Although -the Athenians were apparently the great- 
est sufferers by the invasion, their city being burnt, and 
their country laid waste ; yet they derived the greatest 
benefits from its effects. !n consequence of their naval 
superiority, and the unrivalled talents of their command- 

3 



26 GREECE. 

ers, Milfi'ades, Themis' todes, Aristi'des, and Ci'mon, they 
reached the summit of political influence and military 
power, and attained that supremacy in Greece, which the 
Lacedaemonians had hitherto enjoyed. 

24 The constitution of Greece, composed of so many 
independent states, was unfavourable to a long continuance 
of peace. It had become the habit of the weaker states, 
for their security, to ally themselves to one or the other of 
the two leading republics. These two rival powers differed 
also in the political principles which they severally favour- 
ed ; Sparta being the patroness of aristocracy, and Athens 
of democracy. 

25. From this period the martial and patriotic spirit 
began to decline. An acquaintance with Asia, and an im- 
portation of her wealth, introduced a relish for Asiatic 
manners and luxuries. With the Athenians, however, this 
luxurious spirit was under the guidance of taste and genius, 
and it led to the cultivation of the fine arts. 

SECTION viir. 

PEJ.opoNNEsrAN War : Pericles : Alcihiades : Battle of 
^gos-Potamos : Lysander : Thirty Tyrants : Socrates : 
Retreat of the 1 0,000 : Peace of Antalcidas : Thebes : 
Epaminondas : Battles of Leuctra and Mantinea : Age- 
silaus. 

1. After the death of Ci'mon, Per'icles, celebrated for 
his splendid eloquence, consummate address, and great 
abilities, succeeded in the direction of the affairs of \thens, 
and governed the republic 40 years with little less than 
arbitrary sway. He adorned the city with magnificent 
buildings, and celebrated splendid games and festivals ; 
and his age formed an era of great internal splendour And 
magnificence ; but he exhausted the public revenue, and* 
corrupted the manners of the people. He was succeeded 
by Alcihi'ades, who resembled him in his ambition, elo- 
quence, and talents ; but who was still more corrupt and 
unprincipled, and whose influence on the character- of the 
people was most pernicious. 

2. In the latter part of the administration of Per'icles, 
commenced the Peloponnesian ivar, which was the most 
important and celebrated war ever carried on by the Gre- 
cian states with each other. This bloody contest grew 



GREECE. 27 

out of the long continued rivalship between Athens and 
Sparta. The Athenians having assisted the inhabitants of 
Corcy'ra against the Corinthians, were accused by the 
latter of having thereby violated the treaty of the con- 
federated states of Peloponne'sns, and an appeal to arras 
was immediately resolved on. 

3. Sparta took the lead, and was joined by all the Pe- 
loponnesian states, except Argos, which remained neutral ; 
and in Northern Greece, by the Megarians, Boeotians, 
Locrians, Phocians, &c. Athens had iew allies ; the 
principal were the Thessalians, Acarnanians, and several 
islands. The Peloponnesian forces, commanded by the 
Spartan king, Archid'amus, amounted to 60,000 ; while the 
army of the Athenians did not exceed 32,000 ; but the 
navy of the latter was much the superior. 

4. In the first year of the war, the Lacedaemonians rav- 
aged Attica, and laid siege to Athens ; in the second year, 
the city was visited by a dreadful plague, which swept 
away multitudes ; and among its victims was Pericles. The 
war, however, was not arrested by this awful calamity, but 
continued to rage for several years in a similar manner, 
and with nearly equal losses on both sides. 

5. This contest partook in a great degree of the nature 
of a civil war ; and though the time of its continuance, 
the age of Soc'rates himself, was an era characterized by 
the high perfection to which the arts, philosophy, and re- 
finement had been brought, yet it was carried on in a 
spirit of savage ferocity, rarely exemplified among civilized 
nations. 

6. Li/san'der, the ablest of the Lacedsemonian generals, 
having succeeded to the command, utterly defeated the 
Athenian fleet at jE'gos-Pot'amos, which reduced Athens 
to the last extremity. The Lacedaemonians blockaded 
the city by land and sea, and its reduction was left to the 
sure operation of famine. 

7- The Athenians, anxious to avoid utter extermination, 
were ready to accept almost any terms of peace. They 
were spared on condition that they should demolish their 
port with all their fortifications, limit their fleet to 12 ships, 
and, in future, undertake no military enterprise, except 
under the command of the Lacedaemonians. Thus the 
Peloponnesian war terminated by the humiliating submis- 
sion of Athens, and by rendering Lacedcc'mon the leading 
power in Greece. 



28 6REECE. 

8 Lysan'der, after the reduction of Athens, abolished 
the popular government, and substituted in its place 30 
magistrates, whose power was absolute, and who, from 
fheir atrocious acts of cruelty, were styled the Thirty Ty- 
rants. In the space of eight months, 1500 citizens were 
sacrificed to their avarice or vengeance. At length Thra- 
sybu'lus, at the head of a band of patriots, drove the 
tyrants from the seat of their abused power, and restored 
the democratical form of government. 

9. But pure democracy was unhappily no security, at 
Athens, against acts of tyranny and oppression, even in 
the most enlightened age of the republic. The Athenians 
were characterized as fickle and capricious, and in some 
of their proceedings, they were as unjust and cruel as the 
most lawless despots. 

10. The name of Soc'rates is at once the glory and re- 
proach of Athens. This illustrious philosopher, who, on 
account of his high moral views, is the boast of the pagan 
world, and who attempted to introduce among his country- 
men worthier sentiments of religion, and a better under- 
standing of the duties of life, was accused of corrupting 
the youth, and condemned by the assembly of Athens to 
die by poison. 

1 1 . During his imprisonment, which lasted thirty days, he 
conducted himself with the greatest dignity ; refused to es- 
cape when opportunity offered ; conversed with his friends 
on topics of moral philosophy, particularly the immortality 
of the soul ; and when the appointed time arrived, drank 
the fatal cup with the greatest composure. 

12. The philosophy of Soc'rates forms an important 
epoch in the history of the human mind. He ridiculed the 
metaphysical speculations of his predecessors, and intro- 
duced moral philosophy, by teaching mankind to govern 
their passions, and to consider their actions and their 
duties. From this it was said of him, that he drew down 
philosophy from heaven to earth. 

13. The Greeks were again involved in a contest with 
Persia, by an attempt of Cyrus the younger to dethrone 
liis brother Artaxerx'es. That ambitious prince persuaded 
13,000 Greeks to join his standard, but in an engagement 
at Cunax'a, near Babylon, he was defeated and slain. The 
remainder of the Grecian army, amounting to lOjOOOj ui\«« 



GREECE. 29 

der the command of Xen' ophoii, made a retreat, in which 
they encountered incredible difficulties and dangers, in 
traversing an enemy's country of 1,600 miles in extent, 
from Babylon to the shores of the Euxine. This cele- 
brated return of the Greeks, usually called the Retreat of 
the Ten Thousand, is beautifully described by Xen'ophon, 
and is considered one of the most extraordinary exploits 
in military history. 

14. The Greek cities of Asia having taken part with 
Cyrus, the Spartans, under their king ^^esz/a'ws, engaged 
in> their defence, and thus became involved in the war with 
the Persians. But the king of Persia, by means of bribes, 
induced \thens, Thebes, Cor'inth, and other Grecian states, 
jealous of the Lacedaemonians, to join in a league against 
them : and Agesila'us was obliged to return from Asia 
Minor to protect his own country. 

15. After various vicissitudes, all pai'ties became weary 
of the war, and a treaty of peace was concluded, called 
the peace of Antal'cidas, from the Lacedaemonian, who 
negotiated it. The conditions were, that all the Grecian 
cities of Asia should belong to Persia, and that all the 
others should be completely independent, except that the 
islands of Lemnos, Scyros, and Imbros, should remain 
under the dominion of Athens. 

16. While Athens and Sparta had been for some time 
declining, Thebes, emerging from obscurity, rose, for a 
short period, to a degree of splendour superior to that of 
all the other states. The Spartans, jealous of its rising 
greatness, took advantage of some internal dissensions, 
and seized upon its citadel; but it v/as recovered by the 
efforts of Pelop'idas and Epnminon' das, and the independ- 
ence of Thebes was again restored. 

17. A war between the two states ensued ; and the The- 
ban army of 6,000 men, commanded by Epaminon' das and 
Pelop'idas, defeated the Spartans of double the number, in 
the memorable battle of Leuc'tra. The Spartans lost 4,000 
men, with their king Cleom' brotus ; while the loss of the 
Thebans was only 300. 

18. The victorious Thebans, headed by Epamimm'das, 
and joined by many of the Grecian states, entered the 
territories of Lacedse'mon, and overran all Laconia with 

3* 



$0 GREECE. 

fire and sword, to the very suburbs of the capital. This 
country had not been ravaged by a hostile army for 600 
years ; and the boast of the inhabitants, " that never had 
the women of Sparta beheld the smoke of an enemy's 
camp," was now done away. 

19. The Theban commander, having completely hum- 
bled the power of Sparta, returned to Thebes, with his 
victorious array : not long after, the war being renew- 
ed, he gained another great victory over the Lacedaemo- 
nians, commanded by Agesila'us, and assisted by the 
Athenians, at Mantine'a; but he fell mortally wounded in 
the moment of victory. 

20. Epaminon' das is regarded as one of the greatest 
characters of Greece, equally eminent as a philosopher, a 
statesman, a general, and a citizen. He raised his country 
to its highest eminence, and its glory perished with him. 

21. The battle of Mantine'a was followed by a peace 
between all the Grecian states, establishing the independ- 
ence of each city. Soon afterwards the Spartans, under 
the command of Agesila'us, proceeded to Egypt, to assist 
Tachos,the king of that country, against Nectane'bus, who 
aspired to the throne. But when the Eg3'ptians, who 
crowded to see the famous warrior, beheld a little, deform- 
ed, lame old man, sitting on the sea shore, clad in homely 
attire, they could scarcely conceal their disappointment. 
In consequence of some personal affront from Tachos, 
Agesila'us deserted him, and raised his competitor to the 
throne. Having set sail for Sparta, he died on the coast 
of Egypt, in his 84th year. 

SECTION IX. 

Philip of Macedon : Sacred War : Battle of Chceronea : 
Alexander the Great : Conquest of Persia : Battles of 
the Gr aniens, Issus, and Arbela : Alexandei'^ s Death. 

1. After the death of Agesila'us, little occurs in the 
history of Greece deserving notice, till the appearance of 
Philip of Macedon. The several states were now in an 
abject condition, the inhabitants having greatly degenerat- 
ed Irom the patriotism and valour of their ancestors. 

2. / thensj at this time the most prominent of the repub- 
lics, was suik in luxury and dissipation ; yet it was dis- 
tinguished for its cultivation of literature and the arts. 



GREECE, 51 

Sparta, weakened by the new independence of Pelopon- 
ne'sus, and corrupted by the introduction of gold, had 
abandoned her characteristic simplicity and severity of 
manners, and was greatly reduced from her former great- 
ness. Under these circumstances, Philip formed the am- 
bitious project of bringing the whole of Greece under his 
dominion. 

3. Ihe kingdom of Macedon had existed upwards of 
400 years, but it had not risen to any considei-able emi 
nence ; it had formed no part of the Greek confederacy, and 
had had no voice in the Araphictyonic council. The in- 
habitants boasted of the same origin with the Greeks, but 
they had had little intercourse with the mother country, 
and were considered by the latter as barbarians. 

4. Philip, when only ten years old, was sent as a hostage 
to Thebes, and there enjoyed the advantage of an educa- 
tion under Epaminondas. At the age of 24 years, he 
ascended the throne. He possessed great military and 
political talents, and was eminently distinguished for his 
consummate artifice and address. In order to accomplish 
his design of bringing all the states of Greece under his 
dominion, he cherished dissensions among them, and em- 
ployed agents or pensionaries in each, with a view of 
having every public measure directed to his advantage. 

5. The Phocians having ploughed a piece of ground sa- 
cred to Apollo at Delphi, were sentenced by the council 
of the Amphictyons to pay a fine for this sacrilege ; but 
they refused to submit to the decree. From this circum- 
stance a contest arose, called the sacred war, in which 
almost all the states of Greece took a part, and which was 
carried on with spirit for ten years. The TheLans, Lo 
crians, Thessalians, and others, undertook to punish the 
Phocians, who were supported by Athens, Sparta, and 
some other states. 

6. Philip, having taken and destroyed the city of Olyn 
thus, at length availed himself of the opportunity, which 
this war afforded, of bringing his power into full contact 
with the Grecian states. He proposed to act as arbitrator 
of the matter in dispute, and procured himself to be elected 
a member of the Amphict3fonic council ; and he was after- 
wards styled the Amphictyonic general. The Athenians, 
suspicious of his designs, refused to acknowledge the elec- 
tion ; and being now guided by the inflammatory eloquence 



32 GREECE. 

of Demosthenes, rather than by the pacific counsels of Pho'- 
cion, they were plunged into a destructive contest with 
their powerful rival and neighbour. 

7. A second sacred loar drew Philip again into Greece. 
The Locrians of Amphis'sa having encroached upon the 
consecrated ground of Delphi, and having refused to obey 
the decrees of the Amphictyonic council, Philip was in- 
vited, as their general, to vindicate their authority by force 
of arms. The Athenians and Thebans, roused to the ut- 
most enthusiasm by Demos'thenes, united to resist the 
growing power of this ambitious monarch. The two armies 
met at CkcBrone'a, and after a most obstinate battle, Philip 
gained a decisive victory, which secured to him an entire 
ascendancy in Greece. 

8. It was not the policy of the conqueror to treat the 
several states as a vanquished people. He permitted thera 
to retiin their separate independent goveinments, while 
he directed and controlled all the public measures 

9. Philip next projected the invasion of Persia, and 
convoking a general council of the states, laid before them 
his design, which was highly popular, and he was chosen 
commander in chief of the united forces of all the states 
of Greece. Having made formidable preparations for his 
expedition, and being just ready for his departure, he was 
assassinated by a captain of his guards, while solemniz- 
ing the nuptials of his daughter. The news of Philip's 
death causej the most tumultuous joy among the Atheni- 
ans, who indulged the vain hope of again recovering their 
liberty. 

10. Alexander, (afterwards surnamed the Great), the son 
of Philip, succeeded to the throne of Macedon at the age 
of 20 years. He had been educated by the celebrated 
philosopher Ar'istotle, and at an early age gave proofs of 
a love of learning, a generous and heroic -disposition, dis- 
tinguished talents, and unbounded ambition. 

11. Demos'thenes exerted all his eloquence to persuade 
his countrymen to unite against the j'outhful king. But 
Alexander having reduced to subjection some barbarous 
nations to the north of Macedon, turned the whole force 
of his arms upon Greece. The Thebans, who had risen 
in rebellion, were defeated with great slaughter, their city 
razed, to the ground, and the inhabitants, to the number of 



GREECE. Sa 

30,000, sold for slaves. These dreadful act$ Qf severity 
so intimidated the other states, that they immediately sub- 
mitted to his dominions 

12. Alexander then assembled the deputies of the Gre- 
cian states at Corinth, and renewed the proposal of in- 
vading Persia, and he was appointed, as his father had 
been, generalissimo. He had for his companions in arms 
Parme'nio, and other officers who had distinguished them- 
selves in the wars of Philip. 

13. With an army of 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse, the 
the sum of only 70 talents, and provisions merely for a 
single month, he crossed the Hellespont, in order, with 
such apparently inadequate means, to accomplish his ar- 
duous enterprise. He first proceeded to the site of Ilium 
or Troy, and offered sacrifice to the manes of the heroes 
who fell in the Trojan war, particularly Achilles, whom he 
pronounced to be the most fortunate of men in having 
Patro'clus for his friend, and Homer for his panegyrist. 

14. Dari'us Codom'amis, king of Persia, resolving to 
crush at once the young hero, whom he styled " the mad 
boy," met him on the banks of the Grani'cus with an army 
of 100,000 foot, and 20,000 horse. Here an obstinate 
battle was fought, in which the Persians were defeated, 
with the loss, according to Plutarch, of 22,000 men, while 
the Macedonians lost only 34. In this battle Alexander 
escaped very narrowly with his life. Being attacked by 
two officers, one of whom was about to cleave his head 
with a battle-axe, he was preserved by Cly'tus, who pre- 
vented the blow by running the officer through the body 
with a spear. 

15. The consequences of this victory were important to 
Alexander, as it put him in possession of the city oi Sardis 
with all its riches ; and he soon after took Mile'tus, Hali- 
carnas'siis, and other places of importance. 

16. The next campaign opened early in the spring, when 
the great battle of Issus was fought. The Persian army, 
stated at about 600,000 men, was defeated with prodigious 
slaughter, no less than 110,000 being killed, while the 
Macedonians lost only 450. The engagement took place 
in a narrow defile, where only a small part of the Persian 
army could be brought into action. 

17' The mother, wife, and two daughters of Darius fell 
into the hands of the conqueror, who treated his royal cap- 
tives with the greatest delicacy and respect. Darius, hearing 



34 GREECE. 

of Alexander's kindness towards his family, sent an embassy 
to him, offering for their ransom, the sum of 10,000 talents, 
(about ,^2,000,000 sterling,) and proposing a treaty of 
peace and alliance, with the further offer of his daughter 
in marriage, and all the country between the Euphrates 
and the ^Ege'an sea, as her dower. 

18. When the proposal was laid before Alexander'^ 
council, Parme'nio is reported to have said, " If I were 
Alexander I would accept the terms ; " " And so would I," 
replied Alexander, " were I Parme'nio." The answer 
which be returned to the proposal, imported that he had 
invaded Asia to avenge the unprovoked aggressions of the 
Persian monarchs ; that if Darius would come to him, and 
ask for his wife and family, he would willingly deliver 
them to him ; but if he proposed to dispute the sovereign- 
ty, he would find him ready to oppose him. 

19. He next directed his course towards the rich and 
commercial city of Tyre, and demanded admittance into 
it, in order to perform a sacrifice to the Tyrian Her'cules. 
But the Tyrians refusing to grant it, he was so much ex- 
asperated, that he resolved to reduce the place, which he 
accomplished, after a siege of seven months. On this 
occasion he exercised a piece of wanton cruelty, by or- 
dering 2,000 men to be crucified, in addition to all those 
who were put to the sword, or sold into slavery. 

20. Having invested and taken the city of Gaza, which 
made an obstinate resistance, he sold 10,000 of the inhabit- 
ants for slaves, and dragged Betis, its brave defender, at 
the wheels of his chariot. 

21. Alexander next proceeded to Egypt, which was then 
subject to Persia, but it readily submitted to his authority. 
Amidst incredible fatigues, he led his army throuiih the 
deserts of Libya to visit the temple of Jupiter-Ammon, and 
as the reward of his labours, was gratified by receiving the 
title of the son of Jupiter. While in Egypt, he founded 
the city of Alexandria, afterwards the capital of Lower 
Egypt, the seat of the Ptolemies, and for a long time one 
of the greatest commercial cities in the world. 

22. Returning from this romantic expedition, he receiv- 
ed again advantageous proposals from Darius, who offered 
to surrender to him his whuJe dominions to the west of the 
Euphrates ; but he haughtily rejected the offer, telling 
him, "the world could no more admit two masters than 
two suns." 



GREECE. 35 

23. Having crossed the Euphrates with an army of near- 
ly 50,000 men, he met that of Darius, which is said to 
have amounted to about 700,000 men. A tremendous 
battle ensued, in which the Persians were entirely defeated, 
with a loss stated at 300,000 men ; while that of Alexan- 
der was only about 500. This engagement took place 
near the village of Gaugame'la, but it is usually called the 
battle of Arbe'la, from a town farther distant. 

24. This great battle decided the fate of Persia, and 
introduced a new era into the history of the world. From 
that period Europe has maintained the superiority over 
Asia, which was then acquired. Darius being soon after 
betrayed by Bessus, one of liis satraps, was murdered, and 
the Persian empire submitted to the conqueror. 

25. Alexander, not yet satiated with conquest, penetrat- 
ed into India, and, in a great battle, defeated Porus, an 
illustrious sovereign of that country. He was projecting 
further achievements, when his soldiers, seeing no end to 
their toils, refused to proceed, and demanded that they 
might be permitted to return to their country. 

26. Finding it impossible to overcome their reluctance, 
he returned to the Indus, whence, sending round his fleet 
to the Persian gulf under Near'chus, he marched his army 
across the desert to Persejj'olis. Here, in a fit of frenzy, 
he ordered the city to be set on fire. From Persep'olis 
he returned to Babylon, where he indulged himself in 
every excess of luxury and debauchery, till he was sud- 
denly seized with a fever, brought on by excessive drink- 
ing ; and here he ended his course in the 33d year of his 
age, and the 13th of his reign. 

27- Alexander was the most renowned hero of antiquity, 
surpassing all others in the rapidity, extent, and splendour 
of his conquests. He possessed great natural endowments ; 
his disposition was frank and generous ; his military tal- 
ents of the highest order; his vanity excessive ; and his 
ambition unbounded. 

28. In the early part of his career, he was distinguished 
for self-government; but at length, being intoxicated by 
success and extravagant adulation, he gave himself up to 
the most excessive indulgence, and to acts of the most 
atrocious cruelty and ingratitude, 

29. His most celebrated gener;'!, Pm-7ne'nio, who had 
agisted him in gaining all his victories, he caused to be 



36 GREECE, 

assassinated, on mere suspicion. His friend Clytus, who 
had saved his life at the Grani'cus, he run through the body 
with a spear, because he contradicted him, when heated 
with wine. He caused the philosopher Callis'thenes to be 
put to death with the most cruel tortures, because he re- 
fused to pay him adoration as a divinity. 

30. His history shows how easily uninterrupted success 
degrades the character, and corrupts the heart ; and how 
necessary disappointments and misfortunes are to teach us 
moderation, justice, and humanity. 

SECTION X. 

Alexander's Successors : Demosthenes : Phocion : Demetrius 
Phalereus : AchcBan League : Philopoemen : Subjugation 
of Macedonia and of Greece. 

1. Alexander named no successor ; but on his death-bed, 
he gave his ring to Perdic'cas, one of his generals; and 
upon being asked to whom he left his empire, he replied, 
" To the most worthy." His death was followed by va- 
rious changes, massacres, and wars, in different parts of 
his dominions. 

2. The generals of the army appointed Philip AridcB'us, 
the brother of Alexander, with his infant son by Roxa'na, 
to succeed him ; and Perdic'cas was made regent. The 
empire was divided into 33 governments, distributed among 
as many of the principal officers. Hence arose a series of 
intrigues, and fierce and bloody wars, which resulted in 
the total extirpation of Alexander's family; and after the 
defeat of A?itig' onus, m the famous battle of Ipsus, in a 
new division of the empire into four kingdoms ; viz. that 
of Egypt, under Ptolemy ; Macedonia, including Greece, 
under Cassan'der; Thrace, together with Bithynia, under 
Lysim'achus ; and Syria &c, under Seleu'cus. 

3. The kingdom of Thrace lasted only till B. C. 281, 
when Lysim'achus was defeated and slain by Seleu'cus ; and 
that of Macedonia till the battle of Pydna, B. C. l68. The 
two most powerful kingdoms were Syria and Egypt : the 
former continued under the sceptre of the Seleu' cidcB, and 
the latter under that of the Ptolemies, till they were both 
annexed to the Roman empire. 

4. During the progress of Alexander's conquests, various 



GREECE. 37 

attempts were made by the Grecian states to throw off 
the yoke of Macedonia. The Spartans, especially, excited 
a powerful insurrection ; but they were subdued by Antip'- 
ater, who had been left by Alexander to govern Macedonia 
in his absence. 

5. The news of Alexander's death occasioned great joy 
at Athens, and the eloquence of Demos' tlienes was again 
exerted to rouse his countrymen to secure their liberty. 
But he was still opposed by his former antagonist, the in- 
corruptible and prudent Pho' cion,\wh.o continued a strenuous 
advocate for peace; and whose language was; "Since the 
Athenians are no longer able to fill their wonted glorious 
sphere, let them adopt counsels suited to their abilities, 
and endeavour to court the friendship of a power, which 
they cannot provoke but to their ruin." 

6. The counsels of Demosthenes prevailed so far, that 
the Greeks formed a confederacy, and made an effort to 
recover their liberty ; but they were finally defeated by 
Antip'ater, and Athens was obliged to purchase peace by 
the sacrifice of her ten chief public speakers ; among whom 
the renowned orator Demos' thenes was included. But he 
put an end to his life by poison, in order to avoid falling 
into the hands of his enemies. 

7' Antip'ater was succeeded in the government of Mace- 
donia by Polysper' clion, who restored, for a short time, the 
Grecian states to independence. Athens renewed its 
scenes of turbulence, and proceeded to put to death the 
friends of Antip'ater, and among others, the venerable 
Pho'cion, who was upwards of 80 years of age. He was 
eminent for his public and private virtues, and had been 
45 times appointed governor of Athens. To a friend, 
who lamented his fate, he said ; " This is no more than 
what 1 expected : this treatment the most illustrious citizens 
of Athens have received before nie." 

8. Polyper'chon was succeeded by Cassander, who ap- 
pointed Deme'trius Phale'reus governor of Athens. Under 
his wise and beneficent government, which continued 12 
years, the city enjoyed quiet and prosperity ; and the 
Athenians testified their gratitude by erecting to him 360 
statues. 

9. From this time Athens never enjoyed any thing more 
than a precarious independence. Her political power and 
greatness had ceased, and her citizens, formerly so distin- 

4 



38 GREECE, 

guished for their spirit of liberty and indeperidence, be* 
came no less so for their excessive flattery and abject 
servility. 

10. From this period to the final subjugation of Greece 
by the Romans, the different states underwent a variety of 
revolutions ; but they present little that is interesting, and 
still less that is pleasing. An immense number of Gauls, 
under their king Brennus, ravaged the country, but they 
were at last mostly cut off. 

11. Scarcely recovering from the inroads of these bar- 
barians, the states of Pelopennesus were involved in ca- 
lamities, by the invasion of the celebrated Pyrrhus, king 
of Epi'rus, tlie greatest general of his age. He made an 
unsuccessful attack on Sparta, and was afterwards slain at 
the siege of Argos, with a tile thrown by a woman from the 
top of a house. 

12 The last effort for maintaining the liberty and inde- 
pendence of Greece was made by 12 small cities of Pelo- 
ponne'sus, which were united in a confederacy, called the 
Aclia'an League. 1 he government of this confederacy 
was committed to Ara'tus, with the title of praetor. He 
formed the design of establishing the independence of all 
Greece ; but the jealousy of some of the principal states, 
rendered the scheme abortive. 

13. Ara'tus was succeeded by Philopfz'men, a man of 
integrity and distinguished talents, styled the last of the 
Greeks, because, after him Greece produced no leader 
worthy of her former glory. Having triumphed over thee 
Spartans and vEtolians, he was taken and put to death in 
an expedition against the revolted Messenians, 

14. The Romans, who had now become the most 
powerful nation in the world, being solicited by the iEto- 
lians to afford them aid against the Macedonians, readilj^ 
complied, with the request; and their army, under the 
command of Quintius Flamin'ius, defeated Philip, king of 
Macedon, at Cynoceph' ale, and proclaimed liberty to the 
Grecian states. Nearly 30 years afterwards, a second 
Rornan army, commanded by Paulus JEmil'ius, entered 
Greece, in a war against Perseus, son of Philip, who was 
entirely defeated in the battle of Pydna, and was led cap- 
tive to Rome, to grace the triumph of the conqueror : and 
Macedonia was reduced to a Roman province. 



GREECE. 39 

15. The Romans, jealous of the power of the Achaean 
League, endeavoured to weaken it by cherishing divisions 
among the states, and by corrupting the principal citizens. 
At length the Spartans, in a contest with the Achaean 
states, sought the aid of the Romans. Metellus marched 
his legions into Greece, and gained a complete victory over 
the Achcean army. The remainder of the Achaean forces 
having shut themselves up in Cor'intlij the Roman consul, 
Mummius, completed the conquest, by taking and destroy- 
ing that city. The Achaean constitution was soon after 
dissolved, and the whole of Greece was reduced to a Roman 
province, under the name of Aclia'ia. 

16. But Greece, though subject to the Roman arms, ac- 
quired, by her arts of peace, her learning, genius, and 
taste, a silent superiority over her conquerors, and was 
regarded with respect. The most distinguished Romans 
were educated in the Grecian schools of philosophy ; Rome 
derived her learning from Athens 5 and the victors became 
the disciples of the vanquished. 

17. In reviewing the history of this extraordinary peo- 
ple, we see mucl\ to admire, and much also to condemn. 
With regard to gekius, taste, learning, patriotism, love of 
liberty, and heroism, they were unrivalled among the na- 
tions of antiquity. 

18. In the history of Athens, a circumstance which must 
forcibl}'^ impress the reader, is the injustice and ingrati- 
tude which she frequently manifested towards many of 
her best citizens, her most illustrious patriots and philoso- 
phers. Some of the most distinguished victims of this 
injustice were Milti'ades, Aristi'des, Themis' tocles, Ci'mon, 
Pho'cion, and Soc' rates. These were all sentenced to death, 
or banishment : yet, not long after their condemnation, the 
Athenians, with their characteristic fickleness and incon- 
sistency, did ample justice to their merit, and punished 
their accusers. 

19. At no period of Grecian history does there appear 
to have existed that virhious age, which many are accus- 
tomed to describe, more in the spirit of poetical romance. 
than of historical truth. " It is evident," says Mitford, 
" from the v/ritings of Xenophon and Plato, that, in their 
age, the boundaries of right and wrong, justice and injus- 
tice, honesty and dishonesty, were little determined bv 



40 GREECE. 

any generally receivecl principle. — That might gave righiy 
especially in public transactions, was a tenet generally 
avowed." 

20. The earlier times were characterized by violence 
and rapine. In a later age, that preceding the Christian 
era, the philosophy of Epicu'riis had gained the ascenden- 
cy ; and the subtilties of scepticism and corruption of man- 
ners had reached a height of extravagance, which it seemed 
difficult to exceed. The history of the world had demon- 
strated the necessity of some better guide to man, than 
human wisdom had been able to afford him, either as a 
member of society, or as a being formed for immortality. 

SECTION XI. GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Grecian Sects of Philosophy. 

The Ionic sect, the most ancient school of philosophy 
among the Greeks, was founded by Thales, who was distin- 
guished for his knowledge of geometry and astronomy. 

The Italian, or Pythagore'an sect was founded by Fy- 
thag'oras, who taught the transmigration of souls through 
different iDodies. 

The Socratic school was founded by Socrates, who was 
esteemed the wisest and most virtuous of the Greeks, and 
the father of moral philosophy. 

The Cynics, a sect founded by Antis'thenes, and supported 
by Diog'enes, condemned knowledge as useless, renounced 
social enjoyments and the conveniences of life, and in- 
dulged themselves in scurrility and invective. 

The Academic sect was founded by Plato, a philosophe-r 
who has had an extensive empire over the minds of men,, 
owing to the sublimity of his doctrines, and the eloquence 
with which he has propounded them. He gave his lectures 
in the groves of Acadenius, near Athens. 

The Peripatetic sect was founded by Ar'istotle, wh© 
establishd his school in the Lyceum at Athens. His phi- 
losophy predominated over the minds of men during iS 
centuries. 

. The Sceptical sect was founded by Pyrrho, who incul- 
cated universal doubt as the only true wisdom. 

The Stoic sect was founded by Zeno. The Stoics incul- 
cated fortitude of mind, denied that pain is an evil, and 
endeavoured to raise theipselves above all the passions aad 
feelings of humanity. 



GREECE. 41 

The Epicure' ans, named from their founder, Epicu'rus, 
held that man's supreme happiness consists in pleasure. 

" The Greek philosophy," says Tytler, " affords little 
more than a picture of the imbecility and caprice of the 
human mind. Its teachers, instead of experiment and ob- 
servation, satisfied themselves with constructing theories ; 
and these, wanting fact for their basis, have only served 
to perplex the understanding, and retard equally the ad- 
vancement of sound morality, and the progress of useful 
knowledge." 

The Seven Wise Men. 

The seven vme men of Greece were Thales, of Miletus ; 
Solon, of Athens ; Bias, of Prie'ne ; Chile, of Lacedsemon ; 
Pit'tacus, of Mityle'ne ; Cleohu'lus, of Lindos \^ and Peri- 
an'der. of Corinth. — Instead of Perian'der, some enumerate 
Mi/son, and others Anachar' sis. 

The Council of the AmpMctyons. 

This council is supposed to have been instituted by Am- 
phic'tyon, the son of Deuca'lion, king of Thes'saly, at an 
early period of the history of Greece. It was composed 
of deputies from the different states, and resembled the 
diet of the German empire. At its first institution, it is 
said to have consisted of 12 deputies, from 12 different 
cities or states ; but the number of deputies was afterwards 
increased to 24 and to 30. They usually met twice a 
year ; in the spring at Delphi, and in the autumn at Ther- 
mop'ylce. 

The objects of this assembly were to unite in strict 
amity the states which were represented ; to consult for 
their mutual welfare and defence ; to decide differences 
between cities ; to try offences against the laws of nations ; 
and also to protect the oracle of Delphi. 

Oracles. 

The Greeks were in the habit of consulting oracles on 
all important occasions, — as when they were about to de- 
clare war, to conclude a peace, to institute a new form of 
government, or to enact laws. The most celebrated ora- 
cles were those of Apollo at Delphi and DeloSf the oracle 
of Jupiter at Dodo'na, and that of Trophonius. 
A* 



42 GREECE. 



Public Games. 



There were four public and solemn games in Greece, — 
the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. 

The exercises practised at these games, were leaping, 
running, throwing, boxing, and wrestling ; also horse and 
chariot races, and contests between poets, orators, musi- 
cians, philosophers, and artists of different descriptions. 

Running 'was much esteemed among the ancient Greeks. 
Leaping was sometimes performed with weights in the 
hands, or upon the head or shoulders. In boxing, the 
combatants held in their hands balls of stone or lead, while 
their arms were guarded with thongs of leather. 

The Olympic games, which were instituted by Her'cules, 
in honour of Jupiter Olympius, were celebrated at the town 
of Olympia, in the first month of every fifth year, and lasted 
five days. They drew together an immense concourse from 
all parts of Greece, and numbers even from foreign coun- 
tries. No one was permitted to contend unless he had 
prepared himself, by continual exercises, during ten monthsj 
in the public gymnasium at Elis. 

The contenders were obliged to take an oath that they 
would use no unlawful means to obtain the reward. The 
prize bestowed on the victor was a crown of olive; yet 
trifling as was this reward, it was considered as the highest* 
honour, and was sought for with the utmost eagerness. 
The victor was greeted with loud acclamations, and his 
return home was in the style of a warlike conqueror. 

The Greeks computed their time by the celebrations of 
these games, the space intervening between one celebration 
and another, being called an Olympiad. 

The Pythian games were celebrated every 5th year, in 
the second year of every Olympiad, near Delphi, in honour 
of Apollo. The victors were crowned with laurel. 

The Nemean games were celebrated at the town of Ne- 
mea, every third year. The victors were crowned with 
parsley. 

The Isthmian gatnes were so called from their being^ 
celebrated on the isthmus of Cor'inth. They were in hon- 
our of Neptune, and were observed every 3d or 5th year. 
They were held so sacred and inviolable, that a public 



GREECE. 43 

calamity could not prevent their celebration. The victors 
were rewarded with a garland of pine leaves. 

Government of Athens. 

Classes of inhabitants. The inhabitants of x'Ythens were 
divided into three classes, citizens or freemen, foreigners 
or sojourners, and slaves. 

- The citizens were the privileged class, and had the gov- 
ernment exclusively in their hands. They were divided 
into 10 tribes, but they were not limited to the city, a part 
of them residing in the small boroughs of Attica. The 
privilege of citizenship was highly esteemed, and was ob- 
tained with much difficulty. 

The sojourners were permitted to exercise trades in the 
city, but had no vote in the assembly, nor could they b© 
raised to any office. 

The slaves or servants were the most numerous portioa 
of the inhabitants of Attica. They were in a state of hope- 
less servitude, wholly at the disposal of their masters, and 
performed the labour in the fields, the mines, and in private 
houses. 

Archons and other magistrates. The supreme executive 
power was vested in nine archons, elected annually. They 
wore garlands of myrtle, and were protected from violence 
and insult. 

The first or chief of the nine was called the archon, by 
way of eminence. He had the care of widows and minors 
throughout Attica, and determined all causes respecting 
wills. He was punished with death, if convicted of ^Irunk- 
enness while in office. 

The second archon, styled Bas' ileus, had the superintend- 
ence of religious ceremonies, and decided all disputes 
among priests. 

The third archon, called Pol'emarch, had originally the 
superintendence of military affairs, but his jurisdiction was 
afterwards confined to strangers and sojourners, and to the 
appointment of games in honour of those who fell in war, 
and to the care of the education of their children. 

The six other archons were called Thesmoth'etce. They 
presided at the election of inferior magistrates, ratified 
public contracts or leagues, received complaints against 
persons guilty of various offences, and decided disputes 
respecting trade and commerce. 



44 GREECt. 

The Athenian magistrates were divided into three sorts ; 
1st, the Chirotone'ti, who were chosen by the people, in a 
lawful assembly, in which they voted by holding up their 
hands ; 2d, the Clero'ti, who, after having been approved 
by the people, were promoted by lots drawn in the temple 
of Theseus ; 3d, the jEreti, who were extraordinary offi- 
cers appointed by particular tribes to take care of any 
business. 

The poorer citizens were admitted to a share in the 
government, and might aspire to preferments ; yet the 
higher offices were generally bestowed upon the most dis- 
tinguished persons. The candidates for office were obliged 
to give an account of their past life in the public forum. 
While in office, the magistrates were liable to trial for an 
accusation of any failure in the discharge of their duties; 
and after their office had expired, they were obliged to 
give an account of their management, and during 30 days 
every man was allowed to bring forward his complaint. 

Assemblies. The assemblies of the people were com- 
posed of all the citizens or freemen of Athens ; all foreign- 
ers, slaves, women, children, and such persons as had re- 
ceived an infamous punishment, being excluded. They were 
held four times in 35 days ; the place of meeting was the 
forum, the pnyx, or the temple of Bacchus- 
No business could be transacted in an assembly contain- 
ing less than 6,000 citizens. When the question under 
consideration, was sufficiently discussed, the president call- 
ed for a decision, which was manifested by show of hands. 

Senate. The senate, which was elected annually, ori- 
ginally consisted of 400, but was afterwards increased to 
500. It was the business of this body to examine, with 
care, all matters, before they were proposed to the people, 
and to see that nothing was submitted to them which was 
contrary to the public good. The senate also examined 
the accounts of the magistrates, took care of the fleet, and 
punished such offences as were not forbidden by any writ- 
ten law. 

Areopagus. The name of this court, which signifies 
Mars^ Hill, was taken from the place where it was held. 
This was the most distinguished and venerable court of 
justice in ancient times, and took cognizance of crimes, 



GREECE. 45 

abuses, and innovations, either in religion or government. 
The Areopagites were guardians of education and man- 
ners, and inspected the laws. To laugh in their assembly 
was an unpardonable act of levity. 

Ostracism. One of the most iniquitous and absurd pe- 
culiarities in the government of Athens, and some other 
of the Grecian states, was the practice of the ostracism, a 
ballot of all the citizens, in which each wrote down the 
name of the individual most obnoxious to him ; and he 
who was marked out by the greatest number of votes, was 
banished from his country for 5, 10, or 20 years. It was 
not necessary that any crime should be alleged, and the 
property and honour of the exile remained unhurt. This 
barbarous institution was often subservient to the worst 
purposes, and stained the character of the Athenians with- 
many flagrant instances of injustice and ingratitude. 

Government of Sparta. 

Classes of inhabitants. The inhabitants of Sparta con- 
sisted of citizens and slaves or Helots. 

The citizens were divided into two classes, the Homoii^ 
and the Hypomiones ; the former alone could be elected 
to office ; the latter, consisting of the poorer citizens, were 
only allowed to vote at the elections. 

The slaves or Helots, were much more numerous than 
the freemen. They performed all the servile labour in the 
field and in the house ; also served as sailors in the fleet, 
and were attached to the army, every soldier being attend- 
ed by one or more. 

Kings. The two chief magistrates of the republic of 
Sparta were styled kings ; but their power was very lim- 
ited. They presided in the senate, and were high priests 
of he nation. One of them commanded the army, while 
the other usually remained at home to administer justice. 
They appeared in public places without any retinue, and 
could scarcely be distinguished from other citizens. 

Senate. The senate of Sparta consisted of the two kings 
and 28 elective members, who were above 60 years of age, 
and retained their dignity till death. It constituted the 
supreme council of the republic, and considered all ques- 
tioHS relating to peace and war, and other important affairs 



46 STRIA OR SYRO-MEDIA. 

of state. None were admitted into this august assembly 
except such as had been distinguished from youth for pru- 
dence and virtue. 

Ephori. The Eph'ori were five Spartan magistrates, 
elected annually by the people, and might be taken from 
every rank of citizens. It was their duty to inspect the 
education of youth, and the administration of justice. 

Assemblies. Two public assemblies met at Sparta ; one, 
called the general assembly, attended by all the freemen 
of Laconia ; the other, called the lesser assembly, com- 
posed the freemen of the metropolis, who were above 30 
years of age. The general assembly was convened when 
questions relating to peace or war, or other matters of' 
general concern, were to be determined. The lesser as- 
sembly was held at every full moon, and regulated the 
succession of the crown, and discussed matters relating to 
government and religion. 



SYRIA UNDER THE SELEUCID.E. 

1. After the death of Alexander the Great, Antig'onus, 
one of his generals, obtained possession of his principal 
dominions in Asia. But Seleu'cus, an officer of Alexander, 
and son of Anti'oclms, one of Philip's generals, revolted^ 
against Antig'onus, and I'ook possession of Babylon ; and by 
the battle of Ipsus, in which Antig'onus was defeated and 
slain, Seleu'cus was confirmed in his authority. He found- 
ed the kingdom of Syr'ia, or Syro-Media, which, reckoning 
from the time of his taking Babylon to the period when 
Syria became a Roman province, lasted 247 years. It was 
governed by 23 kings, who were styled the Seleu'cides,from 
the name of the founder. 

2. Seleu'cus was a great general, an able and popular 
sovereign, and was surnamed Nica'tor or Conqueror, on ac- 
count of 23 battles which he gained. He founded 16 large 
cities, the most famous of which were An'tioch, Seleu'cia, 
Apame'a, and Laodice'a. An'tioch, which became the 
capital of the kingdom, was a very large and splendid city, 
styled " The Queen of the East," and also " The Eye of 
the Christian Church." The disciples of Christ were here 



SYRIA OR SYRO-MEDIA. 47" 

first called Christians ; and this city, at an early period, 
became the seat of a Christian patriarch. 

3. Seleu'cus having made war against JLysim'achus, king 
of Thrace, defeated and slew him in battle, but was him- 
self soon after assassinated by Ptolem}' Cerau'nus, who was 
afterwards king of Macedon. He was -succeeded by his 
son Anti'odms Soter, during whose reign the Gauls made 
an irruption into Asia Minor, and founded the state of 
Galatia. 

4. The reigns of his successors, Anti'ochus TJteos and 
Seleu'cus CalKn'icus, were disturbed by conspiracies and 
b}'^ wars, particularly w th the Farthians and Bactrians, who 
revolted from the government. 

5. One of the most distinguished of this race of sove- 
reigns, was Anti'ochus the Great, who had a long reign of 
36 years, and was as much distinguished for his faults and 
misfortunes, as for his great qualities and successes. His 
reign was a continued warfare, presenting alternately vic- 
tories and defeats. He subdued several governors of dif- 

"ferent provinces who revolted from him. In a war with 
Ptolemy, king of Egypt, after having gained many ad- 
vantages, he lost a great battle at Raphia. He carried 
his victorious arms into Media, Parthia, Hyrcania, and 
India. 

6. Antiochus was visited by Ilan'nihal, the great Cartha- 
ginian general, who endeavoured to persuade him to make 
war upon the Romans, by invading Italy. Instead of this, 
howevei, he invaded Greece, but was defeated by the 
Romans, and compelled to retire into Asia. Being pur- 
sued by a Roman army, commanded by Scipio Asiat'icus, 
he was entirely defeated in a great battle, on the plains 
of Magne'sia, and compelled to accept of peace on humili- 
ating terms. He was afterwards put to death by his own 
officers. 

J. The next two kings were Seleu'cus Philop'ator and 
Anti'ochus Epiph' anes, sons of Antiochus the Great. The 
latter profaned an 1 plundered the temple of Jerusalem, 
and attempted to abolish the Jewish worship. But the 
Jews under Ju'das Maccab(E'vs revolted, and defeated the 
army of Anti'ochus, who immediately engaged in a desio-n 
to exterminate the whole nation ; but before he had effected 
any thing, he died in a sudden and signal manner. 

8. The succeeding reigns of the Seteu'cidce exhijbit a se- 



48 EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES, 

ries of assassinations, conspiracies, and contests, till Syria 
was finally conquered by Pompey, B. C. 65, and made a 
Koman province. 



EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES. 

1. Of all the conquests of Alexander the Great, Egypt 
enjoyed the earliest and most lasting prosperity. The 
dynasty of the Ptol'emies, which, reckoning from the death 
of Alexander to that of Cleopa'tra, lasted 294 years, forms 
a conspicuous period in the history of that country. 

2. PtoVemy Lo.gus,suYX\s.med also /S'o^er, was the reputed 
son of Philip, king of Macedon^ by a concubine, and half- 
brother of Alexander the Great. At the time of Alexan- 
der's death, he~ was governor of Egypt ; and after the 
division of the empire into four monarchies, he became 
king of the country, and had a prosperous reign of 39 _ 
years. He was a man of great abilities, eminent as a gen- 
eral and a statesman, and was also a man of learning, and 
a great patron of literature. 

3. He founded the famous library of Alexandria, estab- 
lished a museum or academy, which became the abode of 
learned men, and erected the celebrated watch-tower of 
Pharos, which was sometimes reckoned one of the seven 
wonders of the world. He built a number of new cities, 
and caused decayed ones to emerge from their ruiils ; ren- 
dered the canals again navigable ; encouraged commerce 
and agriculture ; restored prosperity to Egypt, and con- 
quered Syria. 

4. Ptolemy Soter was succeeded by his second son, 
Ptol'emy PhiladeVphus, who followed, in a great measure, 
the steps of his father, and had a prosperous and splendid 
reign. He founded cities, erected magnificent edifices, 
finished the canal from Suez to the Nile, and promoted 
navigation and commerce. His court surpassed all others 
of the age as a seat of learning, politeness, and the arts, 
and was illustrated by Theoc'rifus, and other men of ge- 
nius. During his reign, the celebrated version of the Old 
Testament into Greek, called the Sep'tuagint, was made for 
the use of the Jetvs, many of whom were, at this time, set- 
tled in Alexandria. 



EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES. , 49 

o. Ptolemy Euer'geles^ the son and successor of the pre- 
ceding monarch, was a warlike and prosperous prince, and 
likewise a patron of learning. His reign commenced with 
a severe, though successful war with Jind'ockus^ king of 
Syria. While absent on one of his expeditions, his queen 
Bereni'ce^ alarmed for his safety, made a vow, that if he 
were restored to her wishes, she would consecrate her 
hair in the temple of V^enus. The hair was regarded 
as the chief ornament of Egyptian ladies : that of Bere- 
ni'ce was particularly beautiful ; and the sacriiice acquired 
additional value, as it was a monument of her affection for 
her husband. By some accident the consecrated locks 
were soon lost ; and the keepers were rescued from pun- 
ishment by the address of the astronomer Conon, who 
affirmed that Berenice's hair had been translated to the 
firmament, and formed a constellation in the heavens. 

6. Ptolemy Euer'getes was succeeded by his son Ptole- 
my Philop' ator^ whose character was cruel and sanguinary, 
and whose reign was distinguished for an unrelenting per- 
secution of the Jews. When he was at Jerusalem, heat- 
tempted to penetrate, by force, into the most holy place of 
the Jewish temple ; into which none but the high priest, 
and he only once a year, was permitted to enter. Being 
forcibly prevented from committing this sacrilege, he 
returned to Egypt, frantic with rage, and resolved to 
wreak his vengeance on the Jewish people, who had en- 
joyed many indulgences under his predecessors. 

7. He published a decree requiring all the Jews, within 
his dominions, to abjure their religion, and worship the 
gods of Egypt. Only about 900 were so base as to apos- 
tatize. He then commanded all the Jews in Alexandria 
to assemble in the Hip'podrome, or place of public diver- 
sion, where he collected 500 elephants for the destruction 
of this devoted people. But the enraged animals rushed 
upon the crowd of spectators, and crushed more of them 
to death than of the Jews. Yet about 40,000 of the latter 
are said to have been slain in the city. 

8. The reigns of the first three Ptolemies, which com- 
prised about a century, formed, by far, the most pro!=per- 
ous part of the dynasty. Most of the other reigns were 
unhappy, abounding in crimes and calamities. 

9. The number of Egyptian kings of the name of Ptole- 
my, was 11 ; most of them distinguished by a surname, 

5 



50 EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES. 

by which they were, in some manner, characterized. Ist, 
Ptolemy Soter or Saviour^ so named by the Rhodians, in 
gratitude for the protection which he afforded them : 2d, 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, or Lover of his Brother^ so called, in 
dei-ision, because he caused his two brothers to be put to 
death : 3d, Ptolemy Euer'getes, or Benefactor, so styled, 
because he restored to Egypt the idols which had been 
carried away by Camby'ses : 4th, Ptolemy Philop'ator, or 
Lover of his Father, so named, in derision, because he was 
supposed to have put his father to death : 5th, Ptolemy 
Epiph'anes, or Illustrious, so styled, though his re^gn was 
weak and inglorious : 6th, Ptolemy Philome'tor, or Lover 
of his Mother, so called, in derision, on account of his 
hatred of his mother : 7th, Ptolemy Physcon, or Big-bellied, 
so named, from his deformity : 8th, Ptolemy Lath'yrus, or 
Chick-pea^ so called from an excrescence on his nose like 
a pea : 9th, Ptolemy Aule'tes, or Flute-player, 

10. The last was Ptolemy Dionysius, who succeeded to 
the throne at the age of 13 years. He had for his queen 
his sister, the celebrated Cleopa'tra, who having caused 
him to be murdered, assumed the sole government. Her 
history is connected with that of Julius Caesar and Mark 
Antony. She finally caused herself to be bitten by an asp, 
in order to avoid being led captive to Rome, to grace the 
triumph of Octavius. After her death, Egypt became a 
Roman province. 

11. The queens of the Ptolemies were, according to the 
usage of the country, for the most part, their sisters ; and 
their names were Arsin'oe, Bereni'ce, and Cleopa'tra. Sev- 
eral of them were women distinguished for their talents 
and accomplishments. 



ROME. 51 

ROME. 

SECTION I. 

Roman History: Foundation of Rome : Romulus : JYuma : 
Tullus Hosiilius : Ancus Martivs : Tarquinius Priscus : 
Servius Tullius : Tarquinius Superbtis^ — expelled, and the 
regal government abolished — From B. C. 753 to 509. 

1. Id the delineation of ancient history, Rome^ after the 
conquest of Greece, becomes the leading object of atten- 
tion. It rose gradually from small beginnings to alolost 
universal empire ; surpassing in the extent of its dominions, 
in military power, and in the stability and strength of its 
government, all the great sovereignties that had preceded 
it. Its history is fruitful in great events and illustrious 
personages ; and from it statesmen and philosophers, of 
different periods and countries, have drawn facts to sup- 
port their respective speculations and theories. The 
history of this empire, in its progress and decline, involves 
a collateral account of all other nations of antiquity, which, 
in those periods, are particularly deserving of attention. 

2. During the reign of the kings and the early years 
of the republic, the Roman territories extended only about 
15 or 20 miles around the capital ; and for about 400 years 
after the foundation of the city, the commonwealth was 
of very limited extent. It then made a rapid progress 
towards universal dominion, and about 50 years before the 
Christian era, it had reduced to its authority almost ail 
the civilized world. This universal empire continued till 
the 5th century, when it began to be broken ; and towards 
the end of that century, the Western Empire became ex- 
tinct. The Eastern Empire subsisted till about the middle 
of the 15th century, when Constantinople was taken by 
the Turks. 

3. The early history of the Romans, like that of othel* 
ancient nations, is mixed with fable ; and what has been 
extensively received as an authentic account of the early 
ages, is far from being entitled to full credit. That a 
considerable mixture of fiction must be blended with the 
history of the first three or four centuries, will appear 
more than probable when we consider, that the earliest 
writer on Roman affairs, whose works are extant, flourish- 
ed nearly 600 years after the foundation of the city ; that 



52 ROME. 

the Romans were not a literary people till the time of the 
conquest of Greece ; that according to their writers, the 
records and monuments of their early history were de- 
stroyed when the city was burnt by the Gauls, B. C. 385 y 
and that manj'^ of the narratives relating- to the early 
times, have much more the air of fable, than of credible 
history. 

4. The length of time comprised in the reigns of the 
seven kings of Rome, has been regarded as a circumstance 
calculated to throw a veil of doubt over the accuracy of 
the account given of them. Of these kings, three died 
a violent death, and one was expelled ; yet the average 
length of their reigns was about 35 years, nearly twice as- 
great as the common average length of reigns. 

5. It may be remarked, with regard to those Roman 
Histories which treat copiously of the early ages, that 
although this portion of them may contain much that 
is true, yet the evidence on which it rests is too slender 
to command implicit belief, with respect to such narratives 
or statements as are in themselves highly improbable. 
We can, by no means, place the account of Romulus and 
that of Julius Ccesar on the same footing, with regard to 
authentic narrative. 

6. According to the poets, ^ne'as, a Trojan prince, 
who escaped from the burning of Troy, after a variety of 
adventures, arrived in Italy, where he was hospitably re- 
ceived by Lati'nus^ king of the Latins, whose daughter he 
married, and whom he succeeded in the throne. The 
succession is said to have continued in his family nearly 
400 years, till the time of JVu'mitor^ the 15th king in a 
direct line from iEne'as. 

7. Rhea Sylvia, the daughter of Nu'mitor, was the 
mother of the twin brothers, Rom'ulus and Remvs. The 
two brothers founded a city ; but having quarrelled with 
each other for the sovereignty, Rom'ulus slew Remus, 
and proceeded with the building of the city, which he 
called, from his own name, Rome. He made it an asylum 
for fugitives, and by stratagem seized and carried off the 
Sabine women for wives. 

8. Rom'ulus is said to have divided his people into three 
tribes, each tribe consisting of 10 curice ; and into two or- 
ders, patricians and plebe'ians. He instituted a senate of 



ROME. 53 

100 members, afterwards increased to 200. These were 
at first always chosen from the patricians, but the plebeians 
afterwards acquired an equal right to that dignity. In 
order to attach the two classes, patricians and ple- 
beians, to each other, by mutual bonds, he established the 
connexion of patron and client. Each plebeian had the 
right of choosing a patrician for his patron, whose duty it 
was to protect him from oppression, and who received 
from his client certain services. 

9. The king was attended by 12 lictors, with fasces, 
and had a guard of 300 horsemen, called cel'eres, eq'iiiies^ 
or knights. 

10. JVuma Pompil'iif^ a Sabine, was elected the second 
king of Rome. He was a native of the town o( Cures, whose 
inhabitants were styled Quiri'tes, a term afterwards applied 
to Roman citizens. Numa is represented as studious, virtu- 
ous, and pacific ; and the Romans are said to have received 
great benefits from his government. He softened their 
fierce and warlike dispositions, by cherishing the arts of 
peace, obedience to the laws, and respect for religion. 
He built the temple o^ Janus, which was open during war, 
and closed during peace. 

11. Tullus Hosi'i'ius, the third king of Rome, was of a 
warlike disposition. His reign is memorable for the ro- 
mantic story of the combat between the Hora'tii and Ciiri- 
a'tii, who were six in number, sons of two sisters, three at 
one birth. The Horatii fought for Rome, and the Curiatii 
for Alba. One of the Horatii survived, all the rest being 
slain ; and by this victory, the Romans became masters of 
Alba. 

12. Ancifs Mar' tins, the 4th king, was the grandson of 
Numa. He conquered the Latins, and built the port of 
Os'tia at the mouth of the Tiber. 

13. Tarquin'ius Priscus, or Tarquin the Elder, the son 
of a merchant of Cor'inth, was elected successor of Ancus 
Martius. He embellished the city with works of utility 
and magnificence, built the walls of heu-n stone, erected 
the circus or hip' podrome, founded the Capitol, and con- 
structed the cloa'ccB, those immense common sewers or 
aqueducts, which conveyed into the Tiber the rubbish 
and superfluous waters of the city. 

14. Ser'vius Tul'lius, the son of a captive female slave, 
and son-in-law of Tarquin, secured his election to the va- 

5* 



54 ROME. 

cant throne by his own address, and the intrigues of his 
mother-in-law. He established the census, by which, at 
the end of every fifth year, the number of citizens, 
their dwellings, number of children, and amount of prop- 
erty were ascertained. The census was closed by a 
lustrum or expiatory sacrifice ; hence the period of five 
years was called a lustrum. 

15. Servius had two daughters, of whom the elder was 
gentle and submissive, and the younger haughty and am- 
bitious. In order to secure the throne, he married them 
to the two sons of Tarquin, the late king, whose names 
were Tarquin and Aruns, and whose different dispositiong 
corresponded to those of his daughters. But he took care 
to cross their tempers, by giving the elder to Tarquin, 
who was violent, and the younger, Tullia, to Aruns, who 
was mild ; hoping they would correct each other's defects. 
But Tarquin and Tul'lia soon murdered their consorts, 
married each other, and then caused Servius to be assas- 
sinated. Tarquin usurped the throne, and Tullia, in her 
eagerness to salute him as king, caused her chariot to be 
driven over the dead body of her father. 

16 Tarquin, surnamed the Proud, (in Latin, Tarquin' im 
Super'bus), began his reign by putting to death the chief 
senators, and governing in the most arbitrary manner ; but 
by his tyranny and cruelty he soon disgusted all classes of 
his subjects. Sextus, his son, having entered the house of 
Collati'nus, under the mask of friendship, did violence to 
his wife Lucre'tia, a woman distinguished for her beauty 
and domestic virtues. The unhappy Lucretia immediately 
sent for her husband and father, who came, bringing with 
them Junius Brutus, and other friends. To them she re- 
lated her mournful story, enjoining upon them to avenge 
her injury; and being unable to survive her dishonour, 
plunged a dagger into her bosom, and expired. 

17. Her corpse was carried to the public square ; the 
vengeance of the people was roused ; and by the strenuous 
exertions of Brutus, the senate pronounced a sentence of 
perpetual banishment against Tarquin and his family. 
The tyrant being expelled from his capital, and abandoned 
by his army, was never able to gain a re-admission into 
the city ; and the regal government was abolished.^ after 
having continued 244 years. 



ROME. 55 



SECTION ir. 



The Commonwealth : Consuls^ Collatinus and Brutus : Va- 
lerius : Porsenna : Dictator : The Plebeians encmnp on 
Mons Sacer : Tribunes : Coriolanus : Law of Volero r 
Cincinnatus : The Twelve Tables : Decemvirs : Appius 
Claudius. — From B. C. 509 to 449. 

1. The regal authority being abolished, a republican 
form of gov^ernment was established in its stead. The 
supreme power, as heretofore, belonged to the senate and 
people ; but instead of a regent for life, two consuls were 
chosen annually from the patrician families, as presidents 
of the republic, and chief directors of affairs. Their 
power was nearly the same as that of the kings, except 
that it was limited to one year. The first consuls were 
Bra'tus and Collati'nus^ who had taken so distinguished a 
part in the expulsion of the tyrants. 

2. Tarquin was now in Etruria, where he prevailed 
upon two of the most powerful cities, Ve'ii and Tarquin'ii, 
to espouse his cause. He had also numerous partisans in 
Rome, particularly among the young patricians, who pre- 
ferred the luxuries and splendour of a royal court to the 
simplicity and austerity of a republic. A plot was formed 
to open the gates to receive him, and upon its being dis- 
covered, Brutus had the mortification to find his two sons 
among the conspirators. They were brought to trial 
before himself: he condemned them to be beheaded in 
his presence, and witnessed the shocking spectacle with a 
steady look and an unaltered countenance. " He ceased 
to be a father," says an ancient author, " that he might 
execute the duties of a consul ; and chose to live child- 
less, rather than to neglect the public punishment of a 
crime." 

3. The insurrection in the city being suppressed, Tar- 
quin relied wholly upon external aid, and raised an armv 
in order to regain the crown ; but he was defeated by the 
Romans under the command of the consuls, Brutus and 
Vale'rius. In this battle Brutus was killed, and the Roman 
matrons honoured his memory by wearing mourning for 
him a whole year. Vale'rius^ after the victory, returned 
to the city, and was the first Roman who enjoyed the splen- 
did reward of a triumph. 



56 HOME. 

4. Vale'rius having become arrogant from the honours 
which he had received, his popularity began to decline ; 
and with a view to recover it, he proposed a law, termed 
from him the Valerian, which granted to a citizen con- 
demned by a magistrate, the right of appealing to the 
people. This gave the first blow to the aristocracy in 
the Roman republic. 

5. For 13 years after the expulsion of Tarquin, the 
Romans were involved in continual wars ou his account. 
Of these the most remarkable was the war with the 
Etrurians, under their king Porsen'na ; a war fertile in ex- 
ploits of romantic heroism, and signalized by the daring- 
intrepidity ofMiitius Scav'ola, a young Roman, who entered 
the enemy's camp in disguise, with a design to assassinate 
Porsenna. 

6. Dangers froiii domestic disorders were soon added to 
those of war. Tarquin had induced the Latins to enlist in 
his cause, and approached the city with his army. The 
plebeians being poor and oppressed with debt, complained 
of their grievances, and refused to aid in repelling the 
enemy, unless the senate would grant them relief, by re- 
mitting their debts to the rich. The consuls found their 
authority of no avail ; for the Valerian law gave to any 
condemned citizen the right of appealing to the people. 

7. An extraordinary measure was now necessary ; and a 
new magistrate was created, styled dictator, who was to 
continue in office only as long as the danger of the state 
required, never exceeding the space of six months, and 
was vested with absolute and unlimited power. He was ap- 
pointed only in cases of public exigency, when quick and de- 
cisive measures were necessary. He had authority to make 
peace and war, to levy taxes, to appoint all public officers, 
and to dispense with tjbe laws, without consulting the senate 
or people. Lar'lius, being elevated to this high office, 
raised a large army, and the Latins were eventually de- 
feated with great loss ; and among the slain were the 
three sons of Tarquin. 

8. After the death of the Tarquins, and the return of 
peace, Rome was disturbed by domestic dissensions, and 
the dispute between the creditors and debtors was again 
revived. On an alarm of war, the plebeians refused to 
take up arms in defence of the republic. Their language 
was, " Of what consequence is it to us whether our chains 



ROME. ^ 57 

are forged by our enemies or our fellow-citizens. Let 
the patricians, since they alone have the reward of victo- 
ries, encounter the dangers of war.'" At length, finding 
no relief from their oppressions, the whole army aban- 
doned their officers, withdrew from Rome, and encamped 
upon Mons Sacer, about three mHes from the city. Here 
they were soon joined by the greater part of the people. 

9. This resolute procedure had its desired effect. The 
senate, being alarmed, deputed ten of the most respectable 
of their order, with authority to grant a redress. Mene'- 
nius.Jigrip'pa^ one of the senators, is said to have related 
in his speech to the people, with great effect, the cele- 
brated fable of the beliy and the members. A recon- 
ciliation was brought about. The dsbts of the ple- 
beians were abolished, and for their future security, they 
were allowed the right of chocsing, from their own order, 
magistrates, styled tribunes, who should have the power of 
annulling, by a single veto^ every measure which they 
should judge prejudicial to their interest. The tribunes 
were elected annually ; their number at first was five ; 
afterwards increased to 10. By them the aristocracy was 
held within bounds, and the fury of the populace was 
regulated. Two magistrates, styled cBdiles^ were appoint- 
ed to assist the tribunes, and to take charge of the public 
buildings. 

10. The neglect of agriculture brought on a famine, 
which caused great commotion ; but the arrival of a large 
quantity of corn from Sicily, produced a temporary relief. 
At this time the resentment of the people was strongly 
excited against Coriola'nus^ who had distinguished himself 
in a war against the Voisci. He advised that no corn 
should be distributed to the people, unless they would 
restore the rights of the senate, and abolish the office of 
tribunes. For this oflFence, being sentenced by the people 
to perpetual banishment, he went over to the Voisci, 
who appointed him their commander ; and he led their 
army against Rome, which was, for a time, threatened 
with ruin. 

11. The proposal of an Agrarian law for dividing among 
the people the lands which were obtained bv conquest, and 
which were the joint property of all the citizens, proved 
an apple of discord thrown out betwpen the rich and the 
poor. Such a division of the public lands was demanded 
by the plebeians, but it was strenuously opposed by the pa- 



58 " ROME. 

tricians. The design was repeatedly brought forward be- 
fore any such law was enacted, and caused violent dissen- 
sions. 

12. By the influence of the tribune, Fol'ero, a law was 
enacted that the election of tribunes should be made, and 
the chief public business discussed, in the comitia or pub- 
lic meetings held by tribes ; and not, as before, by the 
centuries and curias. By this law the supreme authority 
was taken from the patricians and placed in the hands of 
the plebeians, and the Roman constitution became a de- 
mocracy. 

13. Dissensions arising on account of the proposed 
Agrarian law, and dangers from the invasions of the JEqui 
and Volsci, Cincinna'tus was twice called from the plough 
to assume the government as dictator. Having completely 
vanquished the enemies of his country, and entered the 
city in a splendid triumph, he resigned his office, and re- 
turned again to his retirement, to labour upon his farm. 

14. The Romans had hitherto possessed no body of 
written laws. Under the regal government the kings ad- 
ministered justice ; and the consuls succeeded them in the 
exercise of this high authority. But their arbitrary pro- 
ceedings were frequently the subject of complaint, and 
the citizens became desirous of having a tixed code of laws 
for the security of their rights. Three commissioners 
were, therefore, sent to Greece in order to procure the 
laws of Solon, and such others as were deemed useful in 
forming a suitable code. 

15. Upon the return of the commissioners, ten men, 
called Decem'virs, were appointed to digest a body of laws, 
and put them in execution for one year. This was the 
origin of those celebrated statutes known by the name of 
the Twelve Tables, which formed the basis of Roman juris- 
prudence, and continued to be of the highest authority in 
the most flourishing times of the republic. 

16. The decemvirs were invested with absolute power; 
and during the time for which they were appointed, all 
other magistrates were suspended. Each decemvir, by 
turn, presided for a day, and had the sovereign authority, 
with its insignia and fasces. They governed with so much 
moderation and equity, during the first year, that they 
obtained a new appointment ; but two flagrant abuses of 
power by Ap'pius Clau'dius, the leading member of their 
body, caused a speedy termination of the office. 



ROME. S9 

17. One of these crimes was his procuring the assassi- 
nation of Sicin'ius Denla'tus, a Roman tribune, who, on 
account of his extraordinary valour and exploits, was 
styled the Roman Jlchil'les ; the other was his villany with 
regard to Virginia^ a beautiful young maiden, who had 
been betrothed to IciVius, formerly a tribune. Having 
seen her as she was going to the pubjic school, and being 
inilamed with a lawless passion, he en^.ployed a profli- 
gate dependent to claim her as his own property, on the 
pretence of her being the daughter of one of his female 
slaves. 

18. He caused the claim to be brought for trial before 
himself, and pronounced an infamous decree, by which 
the innocent victim was torn from her parents, and placed 
within his own power. Virginius, her father, in order to 
prevent the dishonour of his daught<^r, plunged a dagger 
into her heart. The people witnessing the shocking scene, 
were roused to vengeance. Appius soon after died by his 
own hand ; the other decemvirs went into exile ; the de- 
cemvirate, after having continued for three years, was 
abolished, and the consuls were restored. 

SECTION III. 

Military Tribunes: Censors: Veii destroyed: Camilhis : 
Rome burnt by the Gauls : Brennus : Manlnin : The Sam- 
niles : Pyrrhvs : Conquest of Italy. — From B.C. 449 to 272. 

1. The two great barriers which still separated the pa- 
tricians and plebeians, were the prohibition of their inter- 
marriage, and the limitatioa of the office of consul to the 
patricians. After a long contest, the law prohibiting 
intermarriages was repealed, with the hope that this con- 
cession would satisfy the people. But this success, oq 
the contrary, stimulated them to urge their claim to be 
admitted to a share in the consulship ; and on the occur- 
rence of war, they had recourse to their former custom 
of refusing to enlist, unless their demand was granted 

2. After a long contest, it was agreed on both sides, that 
instead of consuls, six Military Tribunes., with the power 
of consuls, should be chosen, three of them from the pa- 
tricians, and three from the plebeians. This measure 
satisfied the people for a time ; the consuls, however, were 
soon restored. 

.3. The disorders of the republic prevented the survey, 



60 ' ROME. 

or enumeration, of the citizens from being regularly at- 
tended to. In order to remedy this neglect, two officers, 
stj'^led censors^ were appointed ; and it was made their 
duty not only to take the census, every five years, but 
also to inspect the morals and regulate the duties of all 
the citizens. This was an office of great dignity and im- 
portance, exercised in the later times of the republic 
only by consular persons, and afterwards by the em- 
perors. 

4. In order to avoid the evils which arose from the 
people's frequently refusing to enlist in the army, the 
senate introduced the practice of giving regular pay to the 
troops. Fi"caj this period the Roman system of war as- 
sumed a new aspect. The senate always found soldiers 
at command ; the army was under its control ; the enter- 
prises of the republic were more extensive and its success 
more signal and important. The art of war was improved, 
as it now became a profession, instead of an occasional 
eraployment. The Roman domioinn, hitherto confined to 
a territory of a few miles, soon began to be rapidly ex- 
tended. 

5. The inhabitants of the city of Ve'ii^ long the proud 
rival of Romie, equal in extent and population, had re- 
peatedly made depredations on the Roman territories ; 
and it was decreed that Ve'ii, whatever it might cost, 
should be destroyed. A siege was begun, which was con- 
tinued, with great exertion and various success, for ten 
years. At length, in order to carry it on with greater 
vigour, Camilhis was created dictator, and to him was in- 
trusted the sole management of the long protracted war. 

6. He caused a passage to be opened under ground into 
the citadel, by means of which he filled the city with his 
legions, who plundered and destroyed it. Camillus was 
honoured with a splendid triumph, in which he was drawn 
in a chariot by four white horses ; but being afterwards 
accused of having appropriated to his own use a part of 
the plunder of Ve'ii, indignant at the ingratitude of his 
countrymen, he went into voluntary exile. 

7. The Gauls, a barbarous and warlike people, had 
long before this opened a passage through the Alps, and 
had settled themselves in the northern part of Italy. Un- 
der the command of their king Brennus. they laid siege 
to Clu'sium, a city of Etruria, the inhabitants of which 
implored the assistance of the Romans. The senate sent 



ROME. (jl 

an embassy to Brennus to inquire what offence the citizens 
of Clu'sium had given him. To this he sternly replied, 
that " the right of valiant men lay in their swords ; that 
the Romans themselves had no other right to the cities 
they had conquered." The ambassadors then entered 
Clu siiim, and assisted the inhabitants against the assail- 
ants. This so incensed Brennus, that he raised the siege, 
marched directly towards Rome, and in a great battle near 
the rivulet Allia, he defeated the Roman array with great 
slaughter. 

8. The Gauls then entered Rome, and after a general 
massacre of such of the inhabitants as remained in it, and a 
pillage of the city, they burnt it to the ground. They 
next besieged the capitol, but the Romans repelled their 
attacks with great bravery. At length, having discovered 
footsteps leading up to the top of the Tarpei'an rock, a 
body of Ganls undertook the difficult enterprise of gaining 
the summit in the night; which they accomplished while 
the Roman sentinel was asleep. At this moment the cack- 
ling of some geese in the temple of Juno, is said to have 
awakened Man'lius with his associates, who instantly threw 
the Gauls headlong down the precipice. 

9 From this time the hopes of the Gauls began to de- 
cline, and they soon after agreed to quit the city on con- 
dition of receiving 1000 pounds weight of gold. While 
the money was weighing, Cainillus, who had been again 
appointed dictator, entered the city with a large army. 
Being informed what was doing, he ordered the gold to 
be carried back to the capitol ; '• for it has always been," 
said he, " the manner of us Romans, to ransom our country 
not with gold, but with iron." Upon this a battle ensued, 
in which the Gauls were entirely routed. Rome, being 
freed from its invaders, soon began to rise again from its 
ashes. 

10. Man'lius was liberally rewarded for his heroism ; but 
being soon after accused of aiming at sovereign power, he 
was sentenced to be throv/n headlong from the Tarpei'an 
rock. Tiius the place which had been the theatre of his 
glory, became that of hi* punishment and infamy. 

11. The Romans nest turned their arms against the 
Samnites, a race of hardy mountaineers, inhabiting an ex- 
tensive tract in the southern part of Italy. This contest 
lasted upwards of 30 years, and was carried on by the 

6 



62 ROME. 

Samnites with great valour and skill, though they were 
finally subdued. They defeated the Romans near Cau'di- 
um, and made their whole army pass under the yoke, 
formed by two spears set upright, and a third bound across 
them. This roused the spirit of revenge on the part of 
the Romans, who appointed Papir'ius Cursor dictator, and 
the next year, under his command, gained a victory over 
the Samnites, and, in turn, compelled them to undergo 
the same disgrace at Luce'ria. 

12. The Tarentines, who were the allies of the Sam- 
nites, sought the aid of Pyr'rhus^ king of Epi'rus, the 
greatest general of his age. He landed at Taren'tum 
with an army of 30,000 men, and 20 elephants; and the 
Romans, under the command of the consul Leevi'nus, not 
being accustomed to the mode of fighting with elephants, 
v/ere at first defeated, with the loss of 15,000 men. that 
of Pyrrhus was nearly as great; and in admiration of the 
heroism of his enemy, he was heard to exclaim, in the 
true spirit of a military chieftain ; " O, with what ease 
could I conquer the world, had I the Romans for soldiers, 
or had thej me for their king ! " 

13. In the progress of the war, Fabri'cius, who afterwards 
commanded the Roman army, received a letter from the 
physician of Pyr'rhus, importing that for a proper reward 
he would poison the king. Fabri'cius, indignant at so base a 
proposal, gave immediate information of it to Pyr'rhus, 
who, admiring the generosity of his enemy, exclaimed ; 
'■ It is easier to turn the sun from his course, than Fabri- 
cius from the path of honour:'' — and that he might not 
be outdone in magnanimity, he released all his prisoners 
without ransom. 

1 4. Pyrrhus then withdrew his army from Italy, in order 
to assist the Sicili^ms against the Carthaginians ; but he 
agaiii returned, and made a last effort near Beneven'tum^ 
where he was totally defeated by Cu'rius Denia'tus. He 
then withdrew to his own dominions, and the Romans, 
after having gained further victories over the Samnites, 
became masters of all Italy. 



ROME. 63 

SECTION IV. 

Carthage : Sicily. 

1. As the history of Rome now becomes connected with 
that of Car'thage and Sig'ily, it may be proper to introduce 
here a short notice of those states. 

2. Carthage is said to have been founded nearly 900 
years before the Christian era, by Dido, with a colony of 
Tyrians. The government, at first monarchical, became 
afterwards republican ; and it is commended by Ar'istotle 
as one of the most perfect of antiquity. The two chief 
magistrates, called suffetes, or judges, were elected annu- 
ally from the first families. The religion was a cruel 
superstition, and human victims vvere offered in sacrifice. 

3. In the time of the Punic wars, Carthage was the 
most commercial and wealthy city, and one of the most 
splendid, in the world. It had under its dominion about 
300 smaller towns in Africa, bordering on the Mediterra- 
nean, a great part of Spain, also of Sicily, and other 
islands. The Carthaginians worked the gold mines of 
Spain. They were devoted to commerce, and had the 
vices and characteristics of a commercical people. The 
Romans, who were their rivals and enemies, represented 
them as wanting in integrity and honour ; hence the 
ironical phrase, Punica fides \^Punic faith'\, to denote 
treachery. 

4. History records the names of few persons among the 
Carthaginians, eminent as philosophers, or distinguished 
in the arts. The Periplus, or voyage of Hanno, an illus- 
trious Carthaginian, who wrote an account of his expedi- 
tion, affords prcof of ardent enterprise. Carthage produced 
several celebrated generals, among whom were HamiV car.^ 
As'drubal, and Han'nihal-, the last was the most formidable 
enemy that Rome ever experienced. 

5. The Phoenicians sent colonies to Sicily before the 
Trojan war; and the Greeks, at later periods, made settle- 
ments on the island. Sicily contained many large and 
opulent cities ; of these Syr'acvse, founded by the Corin- 
thians, was the most populous and commercial, and larger 
than any of the cities of Greece. It was governed, in its 
early ages, like most of the other cities of Sicily, by a 



64 ROME. 

democracy, but at length it fell into the power of an ia- 
dividual. 

6. To Gelon^ one of its sovereig-ns, history ascribes 
every virtue ; but his successors being cruel tyrants, the 
people took measures to rid themselves of the regal gov- 
ernment. It was, however, after 60 years, again restored 
In the person of D-o7iys'ms, a man of great talents ; but he 
found it easier to acquire royalty, than to preserve and 
enjoy it. His son, Dionysius the Younger, a weak and ca- 
pricious tyrant, was dethroned by the aid of Timo'leon, an 
illustrious Corinthian, and exiled to Corinth, where he 
died in poverty. 

SECTION v. 

First Punic War; Resvlus : Second Punic War; Hanni- 
bal : Conquest of Macedonia : Third Punic War, Carthage 
'destroyed: Conquest of Greece. — F7-om B. C. 264 to 133. 

1. The Romans having become masters of all Italy, 
were eager to extend their conquests into foreign coun- 
tries. They had hitherto made no naval conquests, and 
possessed no fleet. Carthage was now their most formid- 
able rival, and the greatest maritime power in the world ^ 
possessing an extensive sway over all the commercial 
towns of the Mediterranean. The Carthaginians were 
rich in merchandise, in silver, and gold : the Romans 
were comparatively poor, but pre-eminent in patriotism 
and valour, and ambitious of conquest. 

2. The Mamertines, a people of Campa'nia, obtained 
assistance of the Romans in a war with Hi'ero, tyrant of 
Syr'acuse. The Syracusans being, at first, assisted by the 
Carthaginians, a war was brought on between the latter 
and the Romans. The object, at first, of both parties, was 
merely to obtain possession of Messa'na, in order to com- 
mand the passage of the straits, which take their name 
from that city ; but it soon became a contest for the 
sovereignty of the whole island, and the dominion of the 
seas. 

3. The Romans now earnestly applied themselves to 
maritime affairs. A Carthaginian vessel which happened, 
in a storm, to be driven ashore, served as a model ; and 
within two months a fleet, consisting of upwards of 100 
vessels, of a rude construction, was prepared, of which 



ROME. 65 

the command was given to the consul Duil'lms, who de- 
feated the Carthaginians, and took 50 of their vessels. 
Soon after the commencement of the war, the Syracusans 
changed their course, and joined the Romans; and Jgri- 
gen'tum was taken from the Carthaginians. 

4. The Romans increased their naval force to upwards 
of 300 galleys, and gained another great victory, off the 
coast of Sicily, over the Carlhagininns, who then made an 
offer of peace, but it was rejected. The consul, Reg'ulus^ 
with an army, soon landed on the coast of Africa, defeated 
the Carthaginians, and appeared before the gates of the 
capital. Here being met by the Carthaginians, under the 
command of Xanthip'pns, a Spartan, he was totally defeated 
and taken prisoner. He was afterwards sent with the 
Carthaginian ambassadors to Rome, in order to procure 
peace, under an oath to return, if the negociation should 
fail. Reg'ulus, thinking the terms not advantageous to 
his country, strenuously opposed their being accepted, and 
returned to Carthage, where he was put to death with the 
most cruel tortures. 

5. The war continued to rage in Sicily with various 
success ; but the Romans finally prevailed, and the Cartha- 
ginians were compelled to accept of humiliating terms of 
peace. They agreed to abandon Sicily, to pay the Ro- 
mans 3,200 talents, and release their captives. Sicily 
was now declared a Roman province ; but Syr'acuse still 
maintained its independent government. After the close 
of this war, the Romans made a conquest of CisaVpine 
Gaul. 

6. The peace between the Romans and Carthaginians 
lasted 23 years, and during a part of this time the temple 
of Jamis was shut for the first time since the reign of 
Numa. 

7. The most distinguished Carthaginian commander in 
the first Punic war, was Hamil'car, who was the father of 
H-.ii'nibal, and who trained his son to war, and made him 
swear, when very young, a perpetual enmity to the Roman 
name. Hannibal was one of the greatest generals of an- 
tiquity, and at the early age of 26 years, was raised to 
the chief command of the Carthaginian army. He com- 
menced the second Punic war by besieging Saguntum^ a 

6* 



56 ROME 

city of Spain in alliance with the Romans. After a siege 
of seven months, the desperaie inhabitants set fire to the 
city, and perished in the flames. 

8. Hannibal now formed the bold design of carrying 
the war into Italy ; and by an arduous and toilsome march, 
he led his army over the Pyr'enees, and afterwards over 
the Mps^ and gained four great victories ; the first over 
Scifi'io, near the Tici'nus ; the second over Sempro'nius, 
neSr the Tre'bia; the third over Flamin'ius^ near lake 
Tkrasyme'nus ; and the fourth over JEmil'ius and Varro^ 
at Cannae. The last was the most memorable defeat that 
the Romans ever suffered. Upwards of 40,000 of their 
troops were left dead on the field, together with the con- 
sul iEmilius. Among the slain were 5,000 or 6,000 Roman 
knights, the greater part of the whole body ; and Hanni- 
bal is said to have sent to Carthage three bushels of gold 
rings, which they wore on their lingers. 

9. Hannibal has been censured for not making the best 
use of this great victory by immediately attacking Rome ; 
and instead of doi>g this, for leading his troops into win- 
ter-quarters, at Cap'ua^ where they were corrupted and 
enervated by dissipation, in that luxurious city. 

10. The Romans being now guided hj the counsels of 
the sagacious and prudent Fa'bius, concentrated their 
strength. The chief command of their armies was given 
to Fa'bms, styled the Shield, and to Mai-cellus, the Szvord 
of Rome. The good fortune of Hannibal now forsook 
him ; and he remained 13 years in Italy, after the battle of 
Cannse, without gaining any signal advantage. At the 
siege of Jiola he was repulsed by Marcellus with con- 
siderable loss, arid his army was harassed and weakened 
by Fabius. 

11. Syracuse, which had taken part with Cartilage, was 
besieged by Marcellus, and after being defended for three 
years by the inventive genius of the celebrated Jirchime'des, 
it was at last compelled to surrender. This event put an 
end to the kingdom of Sj'r'acnse, ^vhich now became a 
part of the Roman province of Sicily. 

12. Scip'iothe Fowra^er, afterwards surnamed Africa' nus, 
having conquered Spain, passed over into Africa, and 
carried havoc and devastation to the walls of Carthage. 
Alarmed for the fate of their empire, the Carthaginians 
immediately recalled Hannibal from Italy. These two 



ROME. Qf 

great commanders, Hannibal and Scipio, at the head of 
their respective armies, fought, on the plains of Zama^ a 
memorable battle, in which the Carthaginians were totally 
defeated. A peace soon followed, the conditions of which 
were, that Carthage should abandon .Spain, Sicily, and all 
the other islands in the Mediterranean, surrender all their 
prisoners, give up their whole fleet, except ten galleys, 
and in future, undertake no war without the consent of 
the Romans. Thus terminated the second Punic war, in 
the humiliation of Carthage, after having continued for 
17 years. 

13. Hannibal afterwards fled from his country, and 
passed the last 13 years of his life in Syria and Bithynia. 
During bis exile, Scipio resided a while in the same 
country, and many friendly conversations passed between 
them; in one of which the Roman is said to have asked 
the Carthaginian, '' Whom he thought the greatest gen- 
eral?-' Hannibal immediately replied, " Alexander, be- 
cause that with a small body of men, he had defeated very 
numerous armies, and had overrun a great part of the 
world." " And who do you think deserves the next 
place ? " continued the Roman ; " Pyrrhus," replied the 
other ; " he first taught the method of foimiing a camp to 
the best advantage. Nobody knew better how to choose, 
or poi^ guards more properly." And whom do you place 
next to those?" said Scipio. "Myself," said Hannibal ; 
at which Scipio asked, with a smile, " Where then would 
you have placed yourself, if you had conquered me ? " 
" Above Alexatider," replied the Carthaginian ; " above 
Pyrrhus, and above all other generals." 

14. While engaged in hostilities with the Carthaginians, 
the Romans prosecuted the first Macedonian war, which 
terminated in the defeat of king Philip, in the battle of 
Cynoceph'ale. Not long afterwards a Roman armv. under 
i^cipio, surnamed Jlsiat'icus, invaded Syria, and in the battle 
of Magne'sia, defeated Anti'ochus the Great. The second 
Macedonian war followed, which terminated in the defeat 
of Perseus, the last king of that country, in the battle-of 
Pydna, and the reduction of Macedonia to a Roman prov- 
ince. 

15. About 50 years after the conclusion of the second 



68 ROME- 

Punic war, the Carthaginians attempted to repel the Nu- 
midians. who made incursions into a territory claimed by 
the former. The Romans, pretending this was a violation of 
their treaty, laid hold of it as a pretext for commencing 
the third Purine war, with a determination to effect the 
entire destruction of Carthage. For' cms Cato, the censor, 
who now swayed the decisions of the senate, had long 
cherished this savage design, and had been in the habit of 
concluding his speeches with this expression ; Delenda est 
Carthago, " Carthage must be destroyed." 

16. The Carthaginians, conscious of their inability to 
resist the Romans, oflered every submission, and were ready 
even to acknowledge themselves subjects of Rome, They 
yielded up, to the demand of the Romans, their ships, their 
arms, and munitions of war. They were then required to 
abandon the city, in order that it might be destroyed. 
This demand was heard by the inhabitants with a mixed 
feeling of indignation and despair; but the spirit of liberty 
and independence not being yet extinct, they were roused 
to make the most strenuous efforts, resolved to sacrifice 
their lives rather than to obey the barbarous mandate. 

17. After the most desperate resistance for three years, 
the city was at last taken by Scipio, the second Jlfricanus, 
and being set on fire, the flames continued to rage during 1 7 
days. Thus was Carthage, with its walls and buildings, 
the habitations of 700,000 people, razed to its foundations. 
Such of the inhabitants as disdained to surrender them- 

, selves prisoners of war, were either massacred, or perish- 
ed in the flames. The scenes of horror were such as to 
force tears even from the Roman general. 

18. The year in which this barbarous transaction took 
place, was signalized by the taking of Cor'inth, and the 
reduction of Greece to a Roman province. And a few 
years afterwards, JYuman'tia, in Spain, after a tremendous 
siege, fell into the hands of the Romans. 

SECTION VI. 

The Gracchi : Jugurtha : Social War : Mithridates : Marius 
and Syllu : Servile War : Conspiracy of Catiline. — From 
B.C. 133 to 62. 

1. The Romans had hitherto been characterized by 
temperance, severity of manners, military enterprise, 
and public spirit; but they were not as yet a literary 



ROME. 69 

people, and the arts and sciences had been hut little en- 
couraged among them. These were now introduced from 
Greece ; and the period of the subjugation of that coun- 
try, is the era of the dawn of taste and literature in Rome. 
Acquaintance with foreign nations, and the introduction of 
foreign wealth, began also, at this period, to introduce 
luxury and corruption of manners. 

2. The power of Rome was now widely extended; her 
arms had been every where triumphant; and by the de- 
struction of Carthage, she was freed from the fear of a 
rival. But when there was no longer a foreign object to 
excite apprehension, she began to be torn by domestic 
dissensions, which continued, in various forms, to distract 
the state, till the final dissolution of the commonwealth. 

3. Tibe'rius and Ca'ius Grac'chus, men of eloquence 
and influence, distinguished themselves by asserting the 
claims of the people. Tiberius, the elder of the two 
brothers, being a tribune, attempted to check the power 
of the patricians, and abridge their overgrown estates, 
by reviving an ancient law, which ordained that no citizen 
should possess more than 500 acres of the public lands. A 
tumult was the consequence, in which Tiberius, together 
with 300 of his friends, were killed in the forum by the 
senators. 

4. This fatal example did not deter his brother Caius 
from pursuing a similar career, in endeavouring to main- 
tain, by force, the privileges of the people, against the 
encroachments of the senate. But like his brother, he 
fell a victim to the attempt, with 3,000 of his partisans, 
who were slaughtered in the streets of Rome by the con- 
sul Opimius. 

5. Jugur'tha^ grandson of Masinis'sa, attempted to usurp 
the crown of JVumidia by destroying his cousins, Hiemp'- 
sal and Adher'bal, the sons of the late king. He murdered 
the elder, but Adher'bal, the younger, escaping, applied 
to Rome for aid ; but the senate being bribed by Jugurtha, 
that body divided the kingdom between the two. Jugur- 
tha having defeated and slain his cousin, seized the whole 
kingdom ; but he excited against himself the vengeance 
of the Romans. 

6. War being declared ag?iinst him, the Roman army 
was at first commanded by MeteVlus ; but Ma'rius having 
supplanted and succeeded him in command, gained two 



YO ROME. 

great victories over Jugurtha, who was taken prisoner, 
led in chains to Rome, and after having graced the tri- 
umph of the conqueror, was confined in a dungeon, where 
he was starved to death. Marius afterwards led the Roman 
army against the Teu'tones and Cimbri, and defeated them 
with great slaughter. 

7. A confederacy of the states of Italy against Rome, to 
obtain the rights of citizenship, gave rise to the Social 
War, which continued to rage for several years, and is 
said to have caused the destruction of about 300,000 men. 
It was ended by conceding the rights of citizenship to all 
such as should return to their allegiance. 

8. Mithrida'tes, king of Pontus, the most powerful mon- 
arch of the east, and one of the greatest generals of the 
age, formed a design of uniting in a confederacy the east- 
ern and northern nations, and, at the head of their forces, 
of overrunning Italy. He began his warfare by causing 
about 80,000 Romans, who dwelt in the cities of Asia Mi- 
nor, to be massacred in one day ; and soon after he invaded 
Greece. 

. 9. Sylla, a man of great talents and an able general, 
who had distinguished himself in the late wars, and was 
now at the head of an army in 'Campania, was appointed 
to the chief command in the war against Mithrida'tes. 
He belonged to an illustrious family, and was popular 
with the senate. But his great rival, Mnrms, a peasant by 
birth, was an enemy to the aristocracy, and a favourite with 
the people. He was now 70 years of age, had been dis- 
tinguished for his warlike genius, for nearly half a century, 
and had been honoured with two triumphs and six con- 
Isulates. But his ambition was not yet satisfied ; and he 
had the address to get the command of the army trans- 
ferred from Sylla to himself. 

10. Sylla, on receiving this intelligence, finding his 
troops devoted to him, led them immediately to Rome, 
which he entered sword in hand, surrounded the senate 
house, and compelled that body to issue a decree declaring 
Marius an enemy to his country. Marius being obliged 
to flee, made his escape into Africa, and Sylla after- 
wards entered upon the Mithridatic war. Cnina^ a zealous 
•partisan of Marius, collected an army, recalled the veteran 
warrior, who, after gaining a bloody victory, entered 
Rome, and gave orders for murdering all the great sena- 



ROME. 71 

tors. After a horrible massacre of their enemies, Marivs 
and Cinna proclaimed themselves consuls, Avithout the 
formality of an election. But the career of Marius was 
soon terminated bj death, and not long after Cinna was 
assassinated. 

1 1 . Sylla, after having had a victorious campaign against 
Mithrida'tes, returned to Italy, and entering Rome with his 
armjr, he caused another most horrible massacre, in which 
his object was to exterminate every enemy he had in Italy. 
Having obtained the appointment of perpetual dictator, he 
caused the streets of Rome to flow with the blood of her 
citizens. He exercised the dictatorship nearly three years. 
After having wreaked his vengeance on his enemies, he 
grew moderate ; at length he voluntarily laid down the 
office, and retired into private life. The following epitaph, 
written by himself, was placed on his tomb : — " I am Sylla 
the Fortunate, who, in the course of my life, have sur- 
passed both friends and enemies ; the former by the good, 
the latter by the evil I have done them." In the wars 
carried on between Sylla and Marius, 160,000 Roman 
citizens were sacrificed, including 200 senators, and 33 
men who had been consuls. 

12. The abdication of Sylla was followed by the Servile 
War. excited by Spar'tacus^ a gladiator, at the head of an 
army of slaves. After having obtained some advantages, 
he was totally defeated, with the loss of 40,000 men, by 
Crassus. 

13. A few years after the defeat of Spar'tacus, a conspira- 
cy, threatening the destruction of Rome, was headed by 
Cat'iline^ a man of extraordinary courage and talents, but of 
ruined fortune, and most profligate character. A plan was 
concerted, that there should be a simultaneous insurrec- 
tion throughout Italy; that Rome should be fired in dif- 
ferent places at once ; and that Catiline, at the head of an 
army, should take possession of the city, and massacre all 
the senators. 

14. This sanguinary plot was seasonably detected and 
crushed by the consul Cicero, the great Roman orator. 
Catiline, at the head of 12,000 men whom he had col- 
lected, was defeated and slain, together with his whole 
army. 



72 ROME. 

SECTION VII. 

First Triumvirate: Civil War of Casar and Pompey : 
Second Triumvirate: Dissolution oj" the Commonwealth.-^- 
From B. C. 62 to 31. 

1. Pompey., who, on account of his military exploits, 
was surnamed the Great, was appointed to the chief com- 
mand in conducting the Mithridatic war^ which he brought 
to a successful termination. He defeated Mithrida'tes, 
king of Pontus, and Tigra'nes., king of Armenia, and re- 
duced Syria, together with Judea, to the state of a Roman 
province. Returning home, after his splendid campaign, 
the Romans honoured him with a triumph, and gazed, for 
three successive days, on the spoils of eastern grandeur, 
which preceded his chariot. 

2. The two most considerable men now in Rome, were 
Pompey and Crassiis, the former for his popularity and 
power, the latter for his enormous wealth, extensive 
patronage, and great liberality. Julius Casar had. at this 
lime, risen into public notice. When a young man, he was 
exceedingly profligate, and had, at an early age, excited the 
jealousy of SjUb., who, discerning his great talents and 
ambition, said of him, that " he saw many a Marius in that 
'dissolute youth." Pompey and Cruss.u.s were hostile to 
each other, both of them contending;- for the command of 
the republic. Caesar paid court to both, and had the ad- 
dress to unite them The three formed the design of 
appropriating to themselves the whole power of the state, 
and entered into that famous league, known by the name 
of the First Triuinvirate. 

3. They distributed the foreign provinces among them- 
selves : Pompey received Spain and Africa, and remained 
in Rome ; Crassus chose Syria, which was the richest ; and 
Caesar took Gaul, and he ratified his treaty with Pompey 
by giving him his daughter Julia in marriage. Crassus 
having made- war against the Parthians, was defeated and 
slain in a battle fought near Carroi^ and left the empire 
to his two colleagues. The bond of union between Caesar 
and Pompey had already been dissolved by the recent 
death of Julia; the two rivals became jealous of each 
other; each began to manifest hostility, and to aspire to 
undivided dominion. 

4. On the division of the provinces among the triumvirs. 



ROME. 73 

Csesar had proceeded immediately to take possession of 
Gaul, which was inhabited by many barbarous and war- 
like nations, most of them yet unconquered. Here he 
had a most brilliant career of victory, in eight campaigns, 
whxh he conducted with extraordinary ability. He con- 
trived to give a colour of justice and humanity to his 
bloody operations. He acquired a high military reputa- 
tion, and great popularity ; and rendered himself the idol 
of his troops by sharing with them every danger, and by 
his great liberality and clemency. 

5. Pompey, who had remained all this time in Rome, 
was alarmed on account of the great reputation of his 
rival, and endeavoured to thwart his views. The term 
of Caesar's government being about to expire, he applied 
to the senate to be continued in his authority ; but this 
body, being devoted to Pompey, denied his demand. He 
now resolved to support his claim by force of arms, and a 
civil war was the consequence. The consuls and most of 
the senators were friends of Pompey. Caesar had on his 
side a victorious army and the great body of Roman citi- 
zens, whom he had won by his liberality. 

6. Pompey had been careful to place in the provinces 
governors devoted to himself; but he had no army, and 
took no measures to raise one. Cicero, surprised at his 
negligence in his preparations, asked him with what troops 
he expected to oppose Caesar? " I need only stamp my 
foot on the ground," he replied, " and an array will arise." 

7. Caesar having bound his army to him by an oath of 
fidelity, led it over the Alps, and stopping at Ravenna, 
wrote to the Roman government, offering to resign all 
command, in case Pompey would do the same ; but the 
senate decreed that he should lay down his government and 
disband his forces, within a limited time, under the penalty 
of being declared an enemy to the commonwealth. Caesar 
marched his army to the banks of the Ru'bicon, a small 
river separating Italy from Cisalpine Gaul, and forming the 
limits of his command ; and to pass which with an army, 
or even a single cohort, had been declared b)^ the senate 
a sacrilege and parricide. On arriving at this famous 
stream, he is said to have hesitated, impressed with the 
greatness of the enterprise, and its fearful consequences ; 
and to have said to Pollio, one of his generals ; ••' If I pass 
thisriver, what miseries I shall bring on my country ! and 

7 



74 ROME. 

if I do not pass it, 1 am undone." Soon after, he exclaimed, 
'• The die is cast; " and putting spurs to his horse, he passed 
the stream, followed by his soldiers. 

8. The news of this movement excited the utmost ter- 
ror in Rome. The citizens reproached Pompey with his 
supineness. " Where now," said a senator, in derision, 
" is the army that is to rise up at your command ? Let us 
see if it will come by stamping." Pompey himself was 
alarmed, and aware that he was unable to resist Cassar in 
Rome, where the great body of the citizens were devoted 
to him, he led his forces to Cap'ua, where he had two 
legions ; thence he proceeded to Brundu'sium, and passed 
over to Dyrrach' ium^ in Macedonia. He was followed by 
the consuls and a great part of the senate, and took 
measures to levy troops both in Italy and Greece. 

9. Caesar, having made himself master of Italy in 60 
days, directed his course to Rome, entered the city tri- 
umphantly amidst the acclamations of the people, seized 
the public treasury, and possessed himself of the supreme 
authority without opposition. He made great ostentation 
of clemency, said that he entered Italy, not to injure, but 
to restore the liberties of Rome and the citizens, and 
gradually dissipated the fears which had been generally 
entertained of another proscription. After staying a iew 
days in the city, he proceeded with his army to Spain, 
defeated Pompey's lieutenants, made himself master of the 
whole country, and returned victorious to Rome, where 
the citizens created him dictator and consul. 

10. The monarchs of the East had declared in favour 
of Pompey, and had sent him large supplies ; and he had 
at this time collected a numerous army. He was daily 
joined by crowds of the most distinguished nobles and 
citizens from Rome. He had, at one time, in his camp, 
upwards of 200 senators, among whom were Cicero and 
Cato, whose approbation alone was equivalent to a host. 

11. Caesar staid only 11 days at Rome: being anxious 
to bring his antagonist to a decisive engagement, he pur- 
sued him with his army, and near Dyrrach'ium, an engage- 
ment took place, which terminated in favour of Pompey, 
who afterwards led his troops into the plains of Pharsa' Ha. 
Caesar did every thing to provoke an engagement; and 
when he saw his enemy advancing, he exclaimed, "The 
lime we have so long wished for is come ; let us see how 



ROME. 7B 

we are to acquit ourselves/' The contest was now cal- 
culated to excite the deepest interest; the two armies 
were composed of the best soldiers in the world, and were 
commanded by the two greatest generals of the age; 
and the prize contended for was nothing less than the 
Roman empire. 

12. Pompey's army consisted of upwards of 50,000 men ; 
Caesar's, of less than half that number ; yet the troops of the 
latter were far the best disciplined. On the side of Pom- 
pey, there was the most confident expectation of success ; 
the minds of all being less occupied about the means of 
conquering, than about distributing the fruits of victory. 
The engagement, which lasted from early in the morning 
till noon, terminated in a dt-cisive victory in favour of 
Caesar, who lost only 200 men, while the loss of Pompey 
amounted to 15,000 killed, and 24,000 prisoners. 

13. Caisar, on this occasion, manifested his characteristic 
clemency. He set at liberty the senators and Roman 
knights, and incorporated with the rest of his army 
the most of the prisoners. The baggage of Pompey 
was brought to him, containing numerous letters of his 
enemies ; these he threw into the fire without opening 
them. When viewing the field strewed with his fallen 
countrymen, he seemed aflfected at the melancholy sight, 
and exclaimed, as if by way of justification ; " They would 
have it so ! " 

14. The fate of Pompey was wretched in the extreme. 
Accustomed to victory for 30 years, and master of the 
republic, he was in one day deprived of his power, and 
became a miserable fugitive. Taking with him his wife 
Cornelia, he fled with very few attendants to Egypt, to 
seek protection of Ptolemy, whose father he had befriend- 
ed. But he was basely murdered in the presence of his 
wife, and his body thrown upon the sand. His freed man 
burnt his corpse, and buried the ashes, over which the 
following inscription was afterwards placed : — " He whosjs 
merits deserve a temple, can now scarcely find a grave." 
In the meantime Csesar had instantly followed Pompey 
into Egj^pt, and the head of his rival, which had been 
preserved, was presented to him ; but he turned his face 
from it with horror, and shed tears on remembering their 
former friendship. 

15. The throne of Egypt was now possessed by Pioiem^ 



76 iiOME. 

and his sister, the celebrated Cleopa'tra. The latter aspired 
to undivided authority, and Caesar, captivated by the charms 
of the beautiful queen, decided the contest in her favour. 
A war ensued, in which Ptolemy was killed, and Egypt 
subdued by the Roman arms. Caesar for a while abandoned 
himself to pleasure, in the company of Cleopatra, but was 
at length called away to suppress a revolt of Fharna'ces, 
the son of Mithrida'tes, who had seized upon Cholchie 
and Armenia. Caesar subdued him with great ease ; and 
in his letter to Rome, he expressed the rapidity of his 
conquest in three words ; Veni, vidi, xici ; " I came, I saw, 
I conquered." 

16. Caesar now hastened to Rome, which he found in a 
state of great disorder, by reason of the bad government of 
tSn'tony ; but he soon restored tranquillity. Pompey's 
party had rallied their forces in Africa, under the command 
of Crt^o and- /Scip^o, assisted by Juba, king of Mauritania. 
Caesar pursued them thither, and gained a complete vic- 
tory in the battle of Thapsus. Cato, who was a rigid stoic 
and stern republican, shut himself up in U'tica, where he 
meditated a brave resistance ; but perceiving all was lost, 
he killed himself in despair. 

17. Caesar returned again to Rome and celebrated a most 
magnificent triumph, which lasted four days ; the first was 
for Gaul ; the second for Egypt ; the third for his victo- 
ries in Asia ; and the fourth for his victory over Juba. 
He distributed liberally rewards to his veteran soldiers 
and officers, and to the citizens ; he treated the people 
with combats of elephants, and engagements between 
parties of cavalry and infantry ; and he entertained them 
at a public feast, at which 20,000 couches were placed 
for the guests. The multitude, intoxicated by these al- 
lurements of pleasure, cheerfully yielded up their liber- 
ties to their great enslaver. The senate and people vied 
with each other in acts of servility and adulation. He 
was hailed father of his country, was created perpetual 
dictator, received the title of emperor, and his person was 
declared sacred. 

18. Having subdued all who opposed his usurpation, 
Caesar devoted his attention to the prosperity and happi- 
ness of the Roman people. " I will not," he said, in one 
of his speeches, *■' renew the massacres of Sylla and Ma- 
rius, the very remembrance of which is shocking to me. 



ROME. fa. 

Now that my enemies are subdued, I will lay aside the 
sword, and endeavour solely by my good offices, to gain 
over those who continue to hate me." He made no dis- 
tinction with regard to parties ; beneficent alike to the 
friends of Pompey and to his own. He corrected abuses, 
extended his care to the most distant provinces, reformed 
the calendar, undertook to drain the Pontine marshes, to 
improve the navigation of the Tiber, and to embellish the 
city, 

19. But Ca3sar made obvious advances towards royalty, 
which gave great offence to the people ; nor could he, by 
his clemency and munificence, obliterate from their minds 
the remembrance of their former constitution, or of the 
mimner in which he had obtained his power. A conspiracy 
was formed against him by 60 senators, headed by Brutus 
and Cassius^ the former of whom was beloved by Ceesar, 
who had spared his life at Pharsalia. and heaped upon him 
numerous favours. 

20. It was rumoured that upon the ides [16th] of March, 
the dictator was going to assume the title of king, and be 
invested with the crown. On that day, when taking his 
seat in the senate-house, he was suddenly assailed by the 
conspirators, against whose daggers he defended himself 
for a while ; till seeing Brutus among the number, he 
faintly exclaimed, " And you, too, my son ! " when, muf- 
fling up his face with his mantle, he resigned himself to 
his fate, and fell pierced with 23 wounds. Thus perished 
Julius Caesar, in the 56th year of his age, 14 years after 
he commenced his career of conquest in Gaul, and after 
having been only about 5 months in the undisputed pos- 
session of that power, which it had been the object of his 
life to obtain. 

21. Cassarwas one of the most extraordinary characters 
that have appeared in history. As the subverter of the 
liberties of his country, he deserves only to be detested. 
But he is not without claims to admiration ; for together 
with his unbounded ambition, he possessed the most splen- 
did endowments of genius, and many noble qualities of 
the heart ; and the world has scarcely seen a more able 
or a more amiable despot. 

22. His career was indeed bloody, involving in destruc- 
tion vast numbers of his species ; yet he had no tendency 
to cruelty, except so far as it was necessary to effect his 

7* 



78 " ROME. 

ambitious designs, nor any thirst for blood ; and he was 
always distinguished for his clemency to a vanquished 
enemy. — In passing a small village among the Alps, on 
his way to take upon himself the government of Spain, 
before the formation of the triumvirate, he remarked, 
that " he would rather be the first man in that village, 
than the second man in Rome " He had frequently in 
his mouth a verse of Eurip'ides, which expresses the 
image of his soul ; " That if right and justice were ever 
to be violated, they were to be violated for the sake of 
reigning." 

23. In his military character, he has probably never 
been surpassed. He was so much the idol of his troops, 
that in any important conjuncture, his lieutenant could 
say nothing more impressive to them than, " Soldiers, 
imagine that Ceesar beholds you ! " Alexander was an 
heir to the throne, and carried into execution the splendid 
conquest which his father had projected, overrunning na- 
tions sunk in luxury and effiminacy. Csesar, originally a 
private individual, appears as the framer of his own for- 
tune, gradually rising, by well concerted plans, to the 
summit of power, pursuing an uninterrupted career of 
victory, and finally conquering the conquerors of the 
world. 

24. " We are now contemplating that man," says Miil- 
ler, " who, within the short space of 14 years, subdued 
Gaul, thickly inhabited by warlike nations; twice con- 
quered Spain ; entered Germany and Britain ; marched 
through Italy at the head of a victorious army; destroyed 
the power of Pompey the Great ; reduced Egypt to obe- 
dience ; saw and defeated Pharna'ces ; overpowered, in 
Africa, the great name of Cato, and the arms of Juba ; 
fought 50 battles, in which 1,192,000 men fell; was the 
greatest orator in the world, next to Cicero ; set a pat- 
tern to all historians, which has never been excelled ;^ 
wrote learnedly on the sciences of grammar and augury; 
and, falling by a premature death, left memorials of his 
great plans for the extension of the empire, and the 
legislation of the world. So true is it, that it is not time 
that is wanting to men, but resolution to turn it to the 
best advantage ! " 

25. The Roman people were struck with horror at the^ 



ROME. 7f 

murder of Caesar. Although he was a usurper, and had 
made himself master of their lives and fortunes, yet he 
was generally popular. His bleeding body was exposed 
in the forum ; and over it Mark Antony, unfolding the 
bloody robe, delivered a public harangue, by which he 
so inflamed the people against his murderers, that they 
were obliged to escape instantly from the city, in order to 
avoid destruction. 

26. Mark Antony^ a man of great military talents, but of 
most profligate character, Lep'idus, who was possessed of 
immense riches, and Octa'vius^ afterwards surnamed Au- 
gustus, the grand-nephew and adopted heir of Caesar, con- 
certed a plan to divide among themselves the supreme 
authority, and formed the Second Triumvirate, the effects 
of whose union were, beyond measure, dreadful to the 
republic. They stipulated that all their enemies should 
be destroyed, and each sacrificed his best friends to the 
vengeance of his associates. Antony consigned to death 
his uncle Lu'cius ; Lepidus, his brother Paulus ; and Octa- 
vius gave up the celebrated Cicero, to whom he was under 
many obligations, in order to gratify the hatred of Antony. 
The great orator was assassinated in his 64th year, by 
Popillius Lasnas, whose life he had saved in a capital 
cause. Antony caused his head to be fixed upon the rostra, 
a spectacle which drew tears from all virtuous citizens. 
Rome was again deluged in blood ; in this horrible pro- 
scription 300 senators, 2000 knights, and many other 
respectable citizens were sacrificed. 

27. Brutus and Cassius, whose object it was to restore 
the commonwealth, had retired to Thrace, and were at the 
head of an army of 100,000 men. Antony and Octavius 
pursued them with a still greater number of troops. The 
empire of the world again depended on the fate of a bat- 
tle. The two armies met near Philip'pi, and, after a 
dreadful conflict of two days, the death-blow was given to 
Roman liberty, by the total defeat of the republican army. 
Brutus and Cassius, agreeably to a resolution which they 
had made before the battle, escaped the vengeance of 
their enemies by a voluntary death. 

28. The triumvirs did not live long in harmony. Lep'- 
idus was deposed and banished. Antony having sum- 
moned Cleopa'tra to Tarsus, the queen, on her arrival, 
made a complete conquest of him. Immersed in luxury 



80 ROME. 

and pleasure,' he gave up the pursuit of ambition, and' 
every thing else for Cleopatra. He lavished on her the 
provinces of the empire, for which he was declared an 
enemy of the Roman people ; and on her account, he 
divorced his wife Ocla'via, the sister of his colleague, 
which was a signal for open hostilities between him and 
Octavius. 

29. A great naval battle, fought near Jlc'tinm, decided 
the contest against Antony and Cleopatra, and left Octa 
vius sole master of the empire. Antony, iollowing the 
example of many celebrated Romans, fell upon his own 
sword ; and Cleopatra, in order to avoid being led captive 
to Rome, to grace the triumph of Augustus, procured her 
own death by the poison of an asp. 

SECTION VIII. 

Rome under the Emperors: The Casars ; Augustus^ Tiht 
rius^ Caligula, Claudius, JYero, Galba, Otko, Vitellius^ 
Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. — From B. C. 31 to A. D. 
96. 

1. The battle of Actium terminated the commonwealth; 
and Octavivs, now named Augus'tus, was master of the 
empire, and took the title oi^ Emperor. Pursuing a pacific 
policy, he restored order to the state ; and the temple of 
Janus was shut for the first time since the commencement 
of the second Punic war, and only the third time from the 
foundation of the city. 

2. While a member of the triumvirate, the conduct of 
Augustus was marked by many instances of treachery and 
cruelty ; but on arriving at sovereign power, he cherished 
the arts of peace, and promoted the welfare and pros- 
perity of his subjects ; so that it was said of him, " That 
it had been good for mankind if he had never been born, 
or if he had never died." He chose for his principal 
minister, Maice'ncs, a very able politician, by whose ex- 
cellent counsels all public affairs were conducted, and 
man}' salutary laws enacted. Maece'nas is celebrated as a 
munificent patron of literature and the arts, which so 
greatly distinguished the reign of Augustus, that it has 
become common to style that period, in the history of 
other countries, most eminent for literature, the Augustan 
age. Among the many distinguished men who illustrated 



ROME. 81 

this reign, were the poets Vir'gil and Hor'ace, and the 
historian Liv'y. 

3. Augustus was a consummate politician, and a man of 
deep penetration ; yet artful and insidous. It was his 
policy to change the nature, and at the same time to pre- 
serve the forms of the government. He affected an ap- 
pearance of great moderation and respect for the rights 
of the people. In the election of magistrates, the repub- 
lican forms were maintained, yet the persons chosen were 
fixed upon by himself He accepted his authority only 
for a limited period, sometimes for ten, and sometimes for 
only five years ; but at the expiration of the term, it was 
regularly bestowed on him again. The city was so much 
embellished during his reign, that he boasted " he found 
brick, and left it marble." 

4. Augustus died in the 76th year of his age, and the 44tb 
of his imperial reign. Just before his death, he addressed 
his friends, who surrounded his bed, and desired to know 
whether he had acted well his part in life, and being an- 
swered in the affirmative, he cried out with his last breathy 
"Then give me your applause." The senate decreed 
that all the Roman women should mourn for him a whole 
year, that temples should be erected to him, and divine 
honours allowed him. 

5.— The reign of Augustus was rendered memorable by 
the birth of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christy which took 
place, according to the best authorities, in the 26th year 
of his reign, and four years before the period commonly 
assigned for the Christian era. In the 18th year of Tibe- 
rius, our Saviour suffered death upon the cross. — 

6. Augustus was succeeded by Tibe'rius, who was the 
son of his wife Liv'ia, by a former husband, and who had 
distinguished himself by his military talents. The new- 
emperor commenced his reign by a show of moderation 
and clemency ; but he soon threw off the mask, and ap- 
peared in his real character, as an odious and cruel tyrant. 
The specious form of the republic, which Augustus had 
continued, now disappeared, as well as the substance. 

7. The brilliant successes of his nephew Gennan'icus^ 
in Germany, and the high favour with which he was re- 
garded by the people, excited the jealousy of TiberinSj who 
is supposed to have caused him to be poisoned. He then 
took into his confidence Seja'nus, a Roman knight, who. 



82 ROME, 

became the minister of the tyranny, rapine, and cruelty 
which characterized his reign, and who rendex'ed himself 
formidable even to his master, and persuaded him to aban- 
don Rome, and retire to the island of Ca'precs, where he 
abandoned himself to the most infamous debaucheries. But 
Seja'nus, being afterwards detected in a conspiracy against 
the life of his sovereign, was executed by the order of 
the senate, and his bod}' ignominiously dragged about the 
streets. A few years after Tiberius was strangled or poi- 
soned by one of his officers. 

8. Tiberius adopted for his heir and successor Calig'ula, 
his grarid nephew, and the son of Germanicus, who even 
surpassed his predecessor in impiety, cruelty, and profli- 
gacy. ' His follies and absurdities were nearly equal to 
his vices, so that he was almost as much the object of the 
contempt, as of the hatred of his subjects. He caused tem- 
ples to be built, and sacrifices to be offered to himself as a 
divinity. He took- such delight in cruelty, that he wished 
" that all the Roman people had but one neck, that he 
might despatch them at a single blow." Seneca says of 
him, that "■ nature seemed to have brought him forth to 
show what was possible to be produced from the greatest 
vice, supported by the greatest authority." He was as- 
sassinated in the 4th year of his reign, and the 29th of 
his age. 

9. After the death of Calig'ula, the senate were in- 
clined to restore the republic ; but, in the general cor- 
ruption of morals, the spirit of Roman liberty had dis- 
appeared. The army preferred an emperor, and Clau'dius, 
the uncle of Calig'ula, and grandson of Mark Antony and 
Octa'via, the sister of Augustus, was raised to the throne. 
He was a man of weak and timid character, a dupe even 
of his domestics, and a slave of his infamous vices. 

10. The most remarkable enterprise in the reign of 
Claudius, was his expedition into Britain, and the conquest 
of a part of that island by his generals. Carac'tacus^ a 
British king, after a brave ref^istance, was taken prisoner, 
and carried captive to Rome, where his magnanimity 
gained him admiration. On being led through the streets,. 
and observing the splendour around him, he exclaimed, 
" How is it possible that men possessed of such magnifi- 
cence at home, should envy Carac'tacus an humble cottage 
in Britain ! " 



ROME. 83 

11. Claudius had five wives, of whom the 4th was Mes- 
sali'na whose very name is a proverbial reproach, and 
who, having abandoned herseU" to the most shameful 
profligacy, was put to death for her crimes. The em- 
peror then married JJgrifpi'na, who was equally practised 
in vice, and who poisoned him in the 15th year of his 
reign, and the 63d of his age, in order to make way for 
JVero, her son by a former husband. 

12. JVero had enjoyed the advantage of a good educa- 
tion under the phiiosopber Sen'eca, and at the commence- 
ment of his reign, he appeared just and humane ; but his 
natural depravity and lerocity soon broke out, and he 
surpassed all his predecessors in every species of profli- 
gacy. History furnishes no character more odious ; and 
his name is used proverbially for a detestable tyrant. 
Among the numerous victims who suffered death by his 
cruelty, were his mother Jlgrippi'na, his wife Octa'via, his 
tutor Sen'eca^ the philosopher, and Lucan, the poet. 

. 13. He caused the city of Rome to be set on fire, in 
mere wantonness, that it might exhibit the representation 
of the burning of Troy ; and he stood upon a high tower 
that he might enjoy the scene. The conflagration con- 
tinued nine days, and a great part of the city was burnt to 
ashes. In order to avert from himself the public odium 
of the crime, he charged it upon the Christians, who had 
now become numerous in Rome, and commenced against 
them a most dreadful persecution, in which St. Paul was 
beheaded. 

14. Nero rendered himself equally contemptible by his 
follies and extravagances, and hateful by his crimes. He 
was too odious a monster to be long endured. A con- 
spiracy, headed by Vindex in Gaul, and Galba in Spain, 
hurled him, at length, from the throne. Galba, in a speech, 
recapitulating his crimes, said : " What enormity has been 
too great for him? Is he not stained with the blood of his 
father, his mother, his wife, his preceptors, of all those, 
who, in the senate, the city, or the provinces, were 
distinguished by birth, riches, courage, or virtue ? The 
blood of these innocent victims cries for vengeance ; and 
since we are possessed of arms, and of power of using 
them, let us disdain to obey, not a prince, but an incen- 
diary, a parricide, a singer, and an actor." The senate 
having passed sentence against him, he avoided falling 



$4 ROME. 

into their hands by a voluntary death, in the 14th year of 
his reign, and the 32d of his age. 

15. After the death of Nero, Galba was declared em- 
peror, both by the senate and by the legions under his 
command. He was esteemed a man of courage, talents, 
and virtue, and had acquired a high reputation in the 
command of armies in the provinces ; but he soon became 
unpopular by his severity and parsimony, and by the 
abuses practised by his favourites. He adopted for his 
successor the virtuous Piso, a measure which gave offence 
to Otho., his former favourite, who excited a rebellion 
against him, and caused the death both of the emperor 
and of Piso, after a reign of only seven months. Tacitus 
says of him, that, " had he never ascended the throne, he 
would have been thought, by all, capable of reigning." 

16. Otho was then proclaimed emperor; but he found 
a formidable rival in Vitel'lius, by whose lieutenants he 
was defeated, and he slew himself after a reign of 95 days. 
ViteVlius, being saluted as emperor, is said to have pro- 
posed Nero for his model, and rendered himself odious to 
the people by his tyranny and profligacy. Fespa'sian, 
who was now at the head of the Roman army in Egypt, 
was proclaimed emperor by his troops ; Rome was taken 
by one of his generals, and Vitel'lius was assassinated be- 
fore he had completed the first year of his reign. 

17. Vespa'sian was declared emperor by the unanimous 
consent of the senate and the army ; and on his arrival at 
Rome, he was received with the greatest joy. He had 
risen by his merit, from a mean origin ; he was distinguished 
for his affability and clemency, and reigned with high popu- 
larity for ten years, promoting the welfare of his subjects. 
His reign is memorable for the destruction of Jerusalem, 
which was effected under the command of his son Titus. 

18. After a tremendous siege of six months, the city 
was taken and razed to the ground, so that, according to 
the prediction of our Saviour, " not one stone remained 
upon another," The number that perished in this siege, 
according to Josephus, amounted to upwards of a million, 
and the captives to almost a hundred thousand. The 
wretched survivors were banished, sold, and driven into 
various parts of the world, and^have continued to this time 
a dispersed, yet a distinct people, and a monument of the 
truth of Revelation. 



ROME, 85 

19. Vespa'sian was succeeded by his son Tiius, who 
(exhibited such an example of justice, humanity, and 
generosity, that he was styled, " The delight of mankind.'''' 
Recollectmg one evening that he had done no beneficent 
act during that day, he exclaimed ; " My friends, I have 
lost a day ! " During his reign, happened that dreadful 
eruption of Vesu'vius, which overwhelmed the cities of 
Hercula'neum and Pompe'n, and caused the death of Flin'y^ 
the naturalist. Titus died in the 3d year of his reign, 
and the 41st of his age, not without suspicion of being 
poisoned by his brother Domi'tian, who succeeded him. 

20. Domi'tian was another monster of profligacy and 
cruelty. He caused himself to be worshipped as a god ,• 
he put to death the most illustrious Romans, and took 
pleasure in witnessing the torture of his victims ; he ban- 
ished the philosophers from Rome, and raised a dreadful 
persecution against the Christians. When secluded from 
the world, he passed his time in vicious and degrading 
amusements. He was so much in the habit of catching 
flies, and piercing them through with a bodkin, that one of 
his servants, being asked if any one was with the_emperor, 
answered, " Not even a fly." 

■ 21. After a reign of 15 years, Domi'tian was assassinated 
at the instigation of his wife, who had discovered that he 
had put her name on the list of those whom he designed 
to destroy. This reign was signalized by the successes 
of the Romans in Britain, under the command of Jlgric' ola^ 
a great general, who had been sent into that country 
by Vespa'sian, and who made an entire conquest of all the 
southern part of the island. 

22- Domitian was the last of those emperors who ai'e 
called the Twelve CcBsars^ Jidius Ccesar, the dictator, being- 
considered the first; though Augustus was the first that is 
generally styled emperor ; and A'ero was, in reality, the 
last emperor of the family of Augustus. 

SECTION IX. 

Nerva : Trajan : Adrian : Antoninus Pius : Marcus Aure- 
lius Antoninus. — From A. D. 96 to 130, 
1. After the death of Domitian, the senate elected for 
his successor Nerva., who was nearly 70 years old, and 
venerble for his virtues, as well as for his age. He was 
4istinguished for clemency, but did not possess energy 



gg ROME. 

sufficient to repress the disorders of the empire. Having- 
adopted Trajan for his successor, he died, after a reign of 
16 months. 

2. Trajan^ who was a native of Seville, in Spain, is 
esteemed the greatest and most powerful, and one of the 
most virtuous of the Roman emperors. He has been 
highly commended for his affability, his simplicity of man- 
ners, his clemency, and munificence. He was the greatest 
general of his age, possessed an ardent spirit of enterprise, 
accustomed himself to hardship, and, even after he ascend- 
ed the throne, marched on foot at the head of his troops, 
over extensive regions. On presenting the sword to 
the praetorian prefect, he gave this remarkable chai'ge ; 
" Make use of it for me, if I do my duty ; if I do not, 
against me." The senate conferred on him the surname 
of Optimus^ or Best ; and for more than 200 years, that 
body was accustomed to hail every new emperor with the 
exclamation : " Reign fortunately, as Augustus ; virtuously, 
as Trajan." 

3. During the reign of Trajan, the boundaries of the 
empire were more extensive than either before or after- 
wards. He subdued the Dacians, conquered the Parihians, 
and brought under subjection Jlssyria, Mesopotamia, and 
Arabia Felix. In commemoration of his victories over the 
Dacians, he erected a joz7Zar, which bears his name, and 
which still remains in Rome, one of the most remarkable 
ancient monuments in the city. 

4. He was a munificent patron of literature, and in his 
rei<^n flourished Pliny the Younger, Ju'venal, and Plutarch. 
He died, greatly lamented by his subjects, in the 20th 
year of his reign, and the 63d of his age. The character 
of this great prince was tarnished by a want of equity 
with regard to the Christians, whom he suffered to be 
persecuted. 

5. Trajan was succeeded by A'drian, his nephew, who 
was an able sovereign, generally beneficent and equitable 
in his o-overnment ; distinguished also for his eloquence 
and his taste in the liberal arts ; but was, nevertheless, 
charo-eable with cruelly and licentiousness. Judging the 
limits of the empire too extensive, he abandoned the con- 
quest? of Trajan, declined war, devoted himself to the 
arts of peace, and promoted the welfare of his subjects. 
He undertook to visit, in person, all the provinces of the 



ROME. 87 

empire, in which expedition he spent 13 years. In his 
progress, he reformed abuses, relieved his subjects from 
burdens, and rebuilt cities. While in Britain, he erected 
a turf wall or rampart across the island from Carlisle to 
JYewcastle, in order to prevent the incursions of the Picts. 

6. He rebuilt Jerusalem, and changed its name to JE'lia 
Capitoli'na. The Jews, incensed at the privileges which 
the Pagan worshippers enjoyed in the new city, made a 
great slaughter of the Romans and Christians residing in 
Judea ; in consequence of which the emperor sent against 
them a powerful army, which destroyed upwards of 1000 
of their best towns, and slew nearly 600,000 men. A'drian 
adopted for his successor Titus Antoni'nus, and died in the 
22d year of his reign, and the 62d of his age. 

7. Titus Antoni'nus, more commonly called Antoni'nus 
Pius, was one of the best emperors of Rome. He is com- 
pared to Numa on account of his virtues, his love of re- 
ligion and peace, his justice, and clemency. It was his 
favourite maxim, that " he would rather save the life of 
one citizen, than put to death a thousand enemies." He 
died in the 23d year of his reign, and the 75th of his 
age. 

8. Antoni'nus Pius adopted for his successor, his son-in- 
law, Marcus Aure'lius Antoni'nus, surnamed the Philosopher. 
He is esteemed the best model of Pagan virtue among the 
Roman emperors ; and " appeared," says an ancient author, 
" like some benevolent deity, diffusing around him uni- 
versal peace and happiness." He was attached, both by 
nature and education, to the Stoic philosophy, which he 
admirably exemplified in his life, as well as illustrated in 
his work, entitled '■'Meditations.'''' 

9. Distinguished as the two An'tonines were for justice 
and humanity,- yet the persecution of the Christians was 
permitted, in some degree, during their reigns. It was 
to the former of the two, that Justin Martyr presented his 
first " Apology for Christianity ; " and the Roman army 
under the latter experienced, by means of a thunderstorm, 
a remarkable deliverance, which has been represented, 
by many, as miraculous. — The names of the wives of each 
of these emj erors was Fausti'na, and both of them were 
noted as women of the most abandoned character. 

10. Aurelius died in the 19th year of his reign, and the 
59th of his age. He was the last of the sovereigns styled 



$8 ' ROME. 

"The five good emperors;" and the glory and prosperity of 
the Roman people seemed to perish with him. From this 
time we beliold a succession of sovereigns, who, with few 
exceptions, were either weak or vicious ; an empire grown 
too great, sinking by its own weight, surrounded by bar- 
barous and successful enemies without, and torn by am- 
feitious and cruel factions within ; the principles of the 
times wholly corrupted ; and patriotism, virtue, and lite- 
rature gradually becoming almost extinct. 

SECTION X. 

From Commodus to Constantine. — From A. D. 180 to 306. 

1. Aurelius was succeeded by his most unworthy son 
Gom'irCodus^ who resembled his mother Fausti'na, and 
equalled even Nero in profligacy and cruelty. He was 
assassinated in the 13th year of his reign, and the 32d of 
of his age ; and Per'iinax^ a man of mean birth, who had 
risen by his merit, was proclaimed his successor by the 
praetorian guards. But the new emperor, giving offence 
by his severity in correcting abuses, was, after a reign of 
three months, put to death, by the same hands that had 
placed him on the throne. He was styled, from the va- 
riety of his adventures, " The Tennis-hall of Fortune.'''' 

2. The empire was now put up to sale by the soldiers, 
and was purchased by Di'dius Julia'nus, who was murdered 
in the tifth month of his reign, b}^ order of Septim'ius 
Seve'rus, who was proclaimed emperor in his stead. He 
had two competitors for the empire, JSfiger and Albi'nus^ 
both of whom were entirely defeated. Seve'rus was an 
able warrior, and governed with ability, yet with despotic 
rio'our. He made an expedition into England, and built a 
stone wall extending from Solway Frith to the German 
Ocean, and nearly parallel to that of A'drian. He died 
at York, in the 18th year of his reign. 

3. Seve/rus left the empire to his two sons, CaracaVla 
and Geta^ the former of whom murdered the latter, and, 
after a tyrannical reign of six years, he was himself assas- 
sinated at the instigation of Macri'nus, who succeeded to 
the throne, and who, after a reign of 14 months, was sup- 
planted by Heliogaha'lus, who caused him to be put to 
death. 

4. Heliogaha'lus succeeded to the throne when only 14 



ROME. 1 9 

years old; yet at this early age. he showed himself to be 
a monster of vice, equalling the worst of his predecessors 
in extravagance, profligacy, and cruelty. He was mur- 
dered in the 4th year of his reign ; yet in this short period, 
he had exhausted all the resources of pleasure, and had 
married and divorced six wives. 

5. Heliogaba'lus was succeeded by his cousin Alexander 
Seve'rus, a mild, beneficent, and enlightened prince, whose 
character shines the brighter from the contrast of those 
who preceded and followed him. He was murdered in 
the 14th year of his reign, and the 29th of his age, at 
the instigation of Max'itnin, the son of a herdsman of 
Thrace, who succeeded to the throne, and who is said to 
have been 8i feet in height, and not less remarkable for 
the symmetry of his person, and his extraordinary strength, 
than his gigantic stature. 

6. The interval from the time of Alexander Seve'rus to 
that of Dlock'sian, was filled by 16 reigns, those of Max'-, 
imin, Max'imus and Balbi'nus, Gor'dian, Philip, De'cius, 
Gallus, iEmiiia'nus, Vale'rian, Gallie'nus, Clau'dius, Aure' 
lim, Tai^'itus, Fio'rian, Probus, Cams, Cari'nus and Nu^ 
me'rian ; a period of 49 years, which furnishes little that 
is pleasing or interesting. Th^; short reigns of most of 
these emperors were alike disastrous to themselves and 
their subjects ; and all of them, except Claudius and Ta9i- 
tus, were cut off by a violent death. 

7. The emperor Vale' rian^ in a war with Sapor, king 
of Persia, w \s defeated and taken prisoner. Sapor treated 
his captive with the greatest indig'nity and cruelty ; he 
used hiin as a footstool in mounting his horse, afterwards 
ordered his eyes to be plucked out, and finally caused him 
to be flayed auve. 

8. The reign of Anre'Van. which lasted only five years, 
was noted for military achievements. He was distinguish- 
ed for great talents, as well as great severity, as a g."neral ; 
and, for courage and promptitude, has been compared with 
Julius CaBsar. He defeated the GoZ/ty and G-rinnns, who 
had begun to harass the Romans ; but his most renowned 
victory was that over Zem.'bia^ the famous queen of Pal- 
my'ra, who was taken captive; and her secr<'tary Longi'- 
nus, the celebrated critic, was slain, by order ''sf the con- 
queror. On his return to Rome, Aurelian was honoured 
with one of the most splendid triumphs ever witnessed in 

8* 



90 



ROME. 



that city. Zenobia was reserved to grace this grand show, 
bound in chains of gold, and overloaded with a profusion 
of pearls and diamonds. 

9. Diode'sian was the son of a Dalmatian slave ; he rose, 
by his merit, from the rank of a common soldier to that 
of a great commander ; and on the death of Cari'nus and 
Nume'rian, was acknowledged emperor. He began his 
reign in 284, and two years afterwards associated with 
himself in the government, his friend Maxim'ian; and in 
292, they took two other colleagues, Gale'rius and Con- 
stan'iius^ each bearing the title of CcBsar. The empire 
Avas now divided into four parts, under the government of 
two emperors and two Ccesurs, each being nominally su- 
j)reme ; but, in reality, under the direction of the superior 
talents of Dioeie'sian. 

10. In this reign happened the 10th and last g-reat per- 
secution against the Christians, which raged for several 
years; was more bloody than any that had preceded it, 
and was so nearly fatal, that the tyrants boasted that they 
had extinguished the Christian name. 

11. Dioeie'sian, in the latter part of his reign, expe- 
rienced a series of calamities, and he and his colleague 
Maxim'ian, resigned the government into the hands of the 
two Csesars. Dioeie'sian then retired to his native country, 
Dalmatia, and built a magnificent palace near the town of 
Salo'na, where he lived eight or nine years, and amused 
himself in cultivating his garden. He declared that he 
he her-e enjoyed more happiness than when adorned with 
the imperial purple ; and was often heard to exclaim j 
" Now it is that I live ; now I see the beauty of the 
sun !" 



SECTION XI. 



From iJie Accession of Constantine to the Extinction of the 
Western Empire. — From A. D. 306 to 476. 

1. Constantius died at York, in Britain, having appoint- 
ed his son Con'stantine his successor; Galerius also died 
four years after ; and Co7i'stantine, surnamed the Great, 
having defeated all his competitors, became sole master 
ef the empire. One of the principal competitors for the 
crown was Maxen' tins ; and historians relate, that when 
Constantine was marching at the head of his army against 



ROME. 91 

this rival, he beheld in the heavens a luminous cross, with 
an inscription in Greek, tovtoo vcxa, " Conquer by tins ; " 
and that in consequence of this vision, and the success 
which attended his arms, he embraced Christianity. 

2. But whatever may have been the circumstance 
which first attracted the favourable notice of Constantine, 
he became the avowed friend and supporter of Christianity, 
and has the honour of being enrolled as the first Christian 
emperor. He put an end to the persecution of the Christ- 
ians, and also to the combats of g-ladiators, and other bar- 
barous exhibitions. His reign forms an important era in 
ecclesiastical history, as the Roman government now 
became the professed protector of the religion which it 
had repeatedly and cruelly persecuted. 

3. An important event in the reign of Con'stantine, was 
the removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Byzan'ti- 
z<m, which latter city, from him, took the name of Con- 
stantinople. The empire had long been verging to ruin, 
and this measure is thought to have hastened its downfal. 
Constantine died in the 31st year of his reign, and the 
63d of his age. His character has been variously repre- 
sented by different writers. " It is manifest," says Miilier, 
" that the genius of Con'stantine, fertile, if not happy, at 
least in specious ideas, gave a new direction to the course 
of human affairs. He maintained peace by the reputatiorj 
of his arms ; and his name, alternately too much exalted 
and unjustly degraded by prejudiced historians, deserves 
an honourable mention among the monarchs of the Roman 
world." 

4. Con'stantine divided the empire between his three 
sons, Con'stantine II., Con'stans,, and Constan'tius II., and 
two nephews. In the space of a few years, all these 
princes were slain, except Constan'tius., the youngest of 
the sons, who remained sole master of the empire. He 
had a weak and unfortunate reign of 24 years, during 
which the empire was harassed and weakened by the in- 
roads of the barbarians from the north, and the incursions 
of the Persians on the eastern provinces. 

5. Constan'tius was succeeded by his cousin Ju'lian.^ 
surnamed the Jlpostate, because, after having received a 
Christian education, he relapsed into paganism. He was 
possessed of considerable talents and learning, and of many 
heroic qualities ; but was the slave of the most bigoted 



n 



ROME. 



superstition. He restored the pagan worship, and attempt- 
ed to suppress Chrisiianity. He undertook to re-assemble 
the Jews, and rebuild their tem;.le; but his design, ac- 
cording to the testimony of a number of writers, was 
miraculously defeated hy the eruption of fir -bails from 
the ground. Ju'iian was killed in a war with the Per- 
sians, in the second year ot his reign, and the 32d of his 
age. 

6. Ju'iian was succeeded by Jo'vian. who restored the 
Christian religion, but died after a short r ign of seven 
months. Valentin' ian was then chosen emperor, who as- 
sociated with himself his brother Va'lens, giving him the 
eastern provinces, which occasioned the final separation 
of the empire into Eastern and Western. The barba- 
rians continued to make inroads into different parts of 
the empire, and the Goths now obtained a settlement in 
Thrace. 

7. The successor of Valentinian was his son Gra'tiariy 
who, on the death of Valens, associated with himself Theo- 
do'siiis, iifterwards surnamed the Great. After the death 
of Gra'tian and his brother ValentMian II., Theodo'sius 
became sole master of the empire. His reign was sig- 
nalized by the complete establishment of Christianity, and 
the downfal of paganism in the Roman dominions. He 
was an ab'e and podtic sovereign ; he repelled the in- 
croachments of the barbarians, and by his wise adm?nis- 
tratioo strengthened, in some measure, the empire, which 
had, for a considerable time, been hastening to its fall. 
He was the last sovereign who presided over both divisions 
of the empire ; and, after a reign of 18 years, he was suc- 
ceeded by his sons, Hono'rius in the West, and Arca'dkis in 
the East. 

8. Through the weakness of Honorius and Arcadius, 
the barbarians were enabled to establish and strengthen 
themselves in their territories. The Goths, under the 
conduct of the famous Marie, spread their devastations to 
the very walls of Constantinople, and filled all Greece 
with the terror of their arms. Ai'aric then penetrated 
into Italy, at the head of a large army, but was defeated 
with great loss by the Romans under Stil'icho. After the 
death of Stii'icho, Ai'aric invaded the country a second 
time, and being joined by 300,000 auxiliaries, he took 
and pillaged several cities of Italy, and at length pitched 



ROME. 93 

his camp before the walls of Rome. This great city, 
which had long sat as mistress of the world, and had for 
ages enriched herself with the spoils of vanquished nations, 
was now reduced to the greatest extremities by famine 
and pestilence. 

9. After the famine had made the most dreadful ravages, 
Al'aric entered Rome, deprived Honorius of the imperial 
dignity, and gave up the city to be plundered by his sol- 
diers. " All the riches of the world," said Al'aric, in 
addressing his army, " are here concentrated ; to you I 
abandon them : but I command you to spill the blood of 
none but those whom you tind in arms ; and to spare such 
as take refuge in the churches." The fearful devastation 
continued for six days, during which, these fierce barba- 
rians indulged their cruelty and ferocity without pity or 
restraint. 

10. Al'aric died immediately after this conquest; and 
the Goths, having elected in his stead Atau'lphvs for their 
leader, took possession of the southern part of Gaul, and 
likewise passed over the mountains, and founded their 
kingdom in Spain. 

11. A few years after the sacking of Rome by Al'aric, 
commenced the sanguinary ravages of the Huns, a bar- 
barous people of Scythian origin, under the command of 
their ferocious king Jlt'tila, styled the Scourge of God. 
Having ravaged the Eastern empire, he invaded Gaul 
with an army of 500,000 men ; and, on the plains of Cha- 
lons, was defeated by the combined forces of the Romans 
under JE'tius (who is styled by Gibbon, " The last of the 
Romans"), and the Goths under Theod'oric., with a loss, 
according to the lowest accounts, of 160,000 men. Not- 
withstanding this defeat, he soon after invaded Italy, ex- 
tended his ravages to the gates of Rome, and compelied 
Valentinian III. to purchase a peace, by an immense dowry 
to be given to him with the emperor's sister Hono'ria. 
But the death of At'tila soon followed, and by this event, 
the earth was delivered trom a warrior who had never 
suffered Europe to enjoy any repose, and who had never 
enjoyed any himself. 

12. Valentinian III. being assassinated at the instigation of 
Petro'nius Max'imiis, who was saluted emperor, the empress 
Eudox'ia invited Gen'seric, k^ng' of the Vandals, to take 
vengeance on the murderer of her husband. He eagerly 



94 ROME. 

embraced the opportunity of disguising his rapacious de- 
signs, landed in Italy with a numerous army of Moors and 
Vandals, took the city of Rome, and gave it up to his 
soldiers to be pillaged with implacable fury for 1 1 days ; 
during which those monuments of art and literature, which 
Al'aric had spared, were ransacked and destroyed. 

13. From the death of Valentinian III., the Western 
empire dragged on a precarious and lingering existence, 
under nine successive emperors, for 21 years, till it was 
finally terminated, in 476, by the resignation of the last 
emperor, Rom'ulus Augus'tulus, to Odoa'cer, the chief of the 
Her'uli, who assumed the title of King of Italy. 

14. " Such was the end of this great empire that had 
conquered the world with its arms, and instructed mankind 
with its wisdom ; that had risen by temperance, and that 
fell by luxury ; that had been established by a spirit of 
patriotism, and that sunk into ruin when the empire had 
become so extensive, that a Roman citizen was but an 
empty name." 

SECTION XII. 

The Kingdom of the Heruli, of the Goths, and of the Lombards 
in Italy. — The Eastern Empire to its Extinction in 1453. 

i. The kingdom of the Her'uli, in Italy, continued only 
about 17 years; at the end of which period, Theod'oric the 
Great, king of the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, defeated 
and slew Odoa'cer, made himself master of all Italy, was 
acknowledged sovereign of the country, and fixed his resi- 
dence at Ravenna. Theod'otus, the third Gothic king of 
Italy, was defeated and slain by Belisa'rius, the general of 
Justinian, who made himself master of Rome. But the 
Ostrogoths, under the brave Tot'ila, recovered their au- 
thority ; but were, in turn, utterly defeated, after their 
dominion in Italy h^id lasted 64 years, by JVar'ses. who 
succeeded Belisarius, and who governed Italy 13 years. 
j 2. Narses having been recalled by Justin II., the suc- 
cessor of Justinian, invited Albo'm, king of the Lombards, 
or Longobards, to avenge his i-ijury. Alboin overran and 
subdued the country, was proclaimed king, and made 
Pavia the capital of his dominions The kingdom of the 
Lombards, in Italy, during the successive reigns of 22 
kings, lasted 206 years, till 774, whea Deside'rius, or Didier, 



ROME. 95 

was defeated by Charlemagne^ and Italy was afterwards 
incorporated into the new empire of the West. The pe- 
riod which elapsed from the death of Theodosius the Great 
to the establishment of the Lombards in Italy, was one of 
the most calamitous and distressing in the history of the 
world. 

3. The Goths were originally from Scandinavia^ and were 
distinguished for hospitality and heroic virtues. At the 
time of their taking Rome, under Alaric, they had par- 
tially embraced Christianity. The Ostrogoths and Visi- 
goths, or Eastern Goths and Western Goths were so called 
from their situation. The Her'uli were of Gothic origin ; 
and the Lombards were originally either from Scandina'- 
Tia, or the north of Germany. 

4. The Eastern Empire, called also the Greek Empire^ 
and the Empire of Constantinople, although it suffered from 
the ravages of the barbarous nations who overthrew the 
Western Empire, yet it resisted their attacks, and subsisted 
more than 1 1 centuries, from the time of its foundation by 
Constantine. This long period furnishes but few events 
which are particularly interesting. 

5. This empire was in the meridian of its glory in the 
6th century, during the \on§ re'i^n oi Justin' ian, sometimes 
styled the Great, who published a celebrated code of laws, 
prepared by Trebo'nian, a great lawyer of that age. This 
code is regarded as the foundation of the jurisprudence of 
modern Europe. 

6. During the reign of Justinian, Belisa'rius and JVar'ses^ 
the two most renowned generals of the age, defended the 
empire against the Persians, recovered Africa from the 
Vandals, and Italy from the Goths, and obtained several 
great victories over these tierce enemies. Justinian built 
the church of St. Sophia, which is now a Mahometan 
mosque. He and some of his successors patronized the 
arts and learning, and endeavoured to revive a taste for 
literature and science in the dark ages ; yet the majority 
of thpse emperors were weak sovereigns, debased by 
luxury and vice. 

7. After the removal of the seat of empire, there arose 
a rivalship between the pope or bishop of Rome, and the 
patriarch of Constantinople, each contending for the pre- 
cedence. This controversy, which occupies a prominent 



gi5 ROME. 

place in the history of the times, finally terminated in the 
entire separation of the Western or Roman, and Eastern or 
Greek churches. 

8. In 1204, the Crusaders took and pillaged Constanti- 
nople, and proclaimed Baldwin, Count of Flanders, their 
leader, sovereign of the empire. They kept possession 
of the throne till 1261, under the reign of five French or 
Latin emperors. During this period, the Greek emperors 
made JVice the seat of their power. 

9. In 1453, during the reign of Constantine XII., Ma'- 
homet II., at the head of 300,000 Turks, besieged and 
took Constantinople, and gave up the city to be plundered 
by his soldiers. He put a final end to the Eastern empire ; 
and since that event Constantinople has continued the seat 
of the Turkish government. 

SECTION XIII. — Roman Antiquities. 

Some account of the origin and nature of most of the 
principal offices, or magistracies, in the Roman govern- 
ment, and also of the division of the inhabitants, has 
already been given. 

The whole structure of the constitution under the mon- 
archy, has, upon the authority oi Dionys' ius of Halicarnas'- 
sus, been attributed, by most authors, to Rom'ulus, a leader 
of a band of shepherds or fugitives. Yet it was doubtless 
true, that the Roman government, like most others, was 
the gradual result of circumstances ; the fruit of time, and 
of political emergency. 

In addition to the divisions of the people, which are 
attributed to Rom'ulus, into three tribes, each of them con- 
sisting of 10 curicB, and into two orders, patricians and 
plebeians, further subdivisions were afterwards made. To 
the three tribes, into which the city was at first divided, 
Servius Tullius added a fourth ; and the four tribes were 
named from the quarters where they dwelt, the Pal'atine, 
Subur' ran, Col'latine, and E,s'quiline. Augustus afterwards 
divided the city into 14 wards 

Besides this local division, Servius d'stributed the 
citizens into six classes, and each class into several centu- 
ries, or portion of citizens, so called, not because they 
consisted of 100, but because they were obliged to furnish 
and maintain 100 men in time of war. The six classes 



ROME. PT" 

Tvere formed according to their property ; the first con- 
sisting of the richest citizens, and the 6th, which was the 
most numerous, of the poorest. The whole number of 
centuries was 193. 

To the two orders of patricians and plebeians, there was 
afterwards added the equestrian order^ composed of eq'uites, 
or knights, who were chosen under the direction of the 
censor, and presented with a horse at the public expense, 
and a gold ring. They were taken promiscuously from 
those of the patricians and plebeians, who had attained 
their 18th year, and whose fortune amounted to <£3,229. 

There were besides some other distinctions among the 
Roman people, as nob'iles, the noble, including those 
whose ancestors had held the office of consul, praetor, 
censor, or curule iEdile, and who had a right to make 
images of themselves. The hom'ines novi^ or new men, 
were persons who were the tirst of their families that had 
raised themselves to any of the above offices. The ig- 
nnb'iles^ or ignoble, were those who had no images of 
their own, or of their ancestors. Those whose parents 
had always been free, were called ingen'ai ; and those 
who had been slaves, but had been made free, were styled 
liber' ti^ and liber li'ni. 

The Roman citizens were not merely those v^^ho resided 
in the c.ty and Roman territory, but the freedom of the 
city was granted to other parts of Italy, and afterwards to 
foreign cities and towns in the empire, whose inhabitants, 
thereby, enjoyed the same rights as the Romans. 

The slaves were an unfortunate class of persons, who 
performed all domestic services, and were employed also 
in various trades and manufactures. They were con- 
sidered as mere property, at the absolute disposal of their 
owners, and were publicly sold in a market-place. Men 
became slaves by being taken in war, by beinof born in a 
state of servitude ; or criminals were reduced to slavery 
by way of punishment. 

Kings. The fc'no-s of Rome were not absolute or hered- 
itary, but limited and elective. They could neither 
enact laws, nor make wake war or peace, wiihouf the con- 
currence of the senate and people. Their badges were 
a white robe, adorned with str'pes of purple, or fringed 
with the same colour, a golden crown, and an ivory 
9 



98 ROME. 

sceptre. They sat in the curule chair, which was a chair 
of state, made or adorned with ivory ; and they were at- 
tended by 12 lictors, carrying- yasce*, which were bundles 
of rods with an axe [^securis] stuck in the middle. 

Senate. The senate at first consisted of 100 persons, but 
was afterwards increased to 200 by Tarquin the Elder ; 
and near the dissolution of the republic, it comprised up- 
wards of 1000. The senators were at first nominated by 
the kings ; but they were afterwards chosen by the con- 
suls, and at last by the censors. This body was usually 
assembled three times a month, but was frequently called 
together on other days for special business. A decree, 
passed by a majority of the senate, and approved by the 
tribunes of the people, was termed senutus consuUum. 
The senators were styled patres, or fathers, on account of 
their age, gravity, and the paternal care they had of the 
state. From them the patricians derived their designa- 
tion, because the senate was, at first, composed wholly of 
that order. 

Magistrates in general. The magistrates in the Roman 
republic were elective, and previous to their election 
they were called candida'ti [candidates], from a white 
robe which they wore while soliciting the votes of the 
people. 

The Roman magistrates were divided into ordinary, ex- 
traordinary., and provincial. The ordinary magistrates 
were those who were created at stated times, and were 
constantly in the republic : the chief of these were the 
consuls, censors, tribunes, aediles, and quaestors. The ex- 
traordinary were such as rose out of some public disorder 
or emergency : these were the dictator and the master of 
the horse, who commanded the cavalry; the decemvirs, 
the military tribunes, and the interrex. The provincial 
magistrates were those who were appointed to the gov- 
ernment of the provinces. These were at first praetors, 
afterwards pro-consuls and pro-proetors, to whom were 
joined quaestors and lieutenants. 

Consuls. The consuls had the same badges as the kings, 
with the exception of the crown ; and their authority was 
nearly equal, except that it was limited to one year. In 
dangerous conjunctures they were clothed with absolute 
power, by a solemn decree, " that the consuls take care 
the commonwealth receive no harm." In order to be a 



ROME. 99 

candidate for the consulship, it was requisite to he 43 
years of age. 

Preetors. The praetor, who was next in dignity to the 
consuls, and in their absence supplied their plnce, was 
appointed to administer justice. He presided in the as- 
semblies of the people, convened the senate upon any 
emergency, and exhibited certain public games. There 
was at first but one praetor, then two, afterwards more. 

Censors. The office of censor was esteemed more hon- 
ourable than that of consul, although attended by less 
power. There were two censors, chosen every five years, 
and their most important duty was performed every fifth 
year, in taking the census of the people ; after which 
they made a solemn lustration, or expiatory sacrifice in 
the Campus Martins, in the name of all the people. 

Tribunes. The office of the tribunes was instituted 
merely to protect the plebeians against the patricians; 
but the tribunes gradually acquired very great power. 

JEdiles. The aediles were so named from their office, 
which was the care of the public edifices, baths, aque- 
ducts, roads, markets, &c. They were of two kinds ; 
plebeian adiles, who were assistants to the tribunes ; and 
curule (sdiles, who superintended the public games. 

QucBstors. The quaestors were elected by the people 
to take care of the public revenue. At first there were 
only two, but several more were afterwards added. The 
military qucBstors accompanied the army, and took care of 
the payment of the soldiers. The provincial qucestors at- 
tended the consuls or praetors into their provinces, and 
received the taxes and tribute. 

Assemblies of the People. An assembly of the whole 
Roman people to give their vote on any subject, was call- 
ed comi'tia. There were three kinds of comi'tia, the cu- 
ria'ta, the centiiria'ta, and the tribu'ta. The comitia were 
summoned, by some magistrate, to pass laws, to elect 
magistrates, to decide concerning peace and war, and to 
try persons guilty of certain heinous crimes. 

The comitia curia'ta consisted of an assembly of the 
resident Roman citizens, who were divided into 30 curice, 
a majority of which determined all matters of importance 
which were laid before them. 

The co^nitia centuria'ta were the principal assembly of 



100 ROME. 

the people, in which they gave their votes, divided into 
the ceniuries of their classes,, according to the census. At 
these comitia, the consuls.pragtors, and censors were cre- 
ated, the most important laws enacted, cases of high 
treason tried, and war declared. They met in the Campus 
Ma tins, and all Roman citizens, whether residing in the 
city or country, had a right to be present, and vote with 
their respective centuries. 

The comitia tribu'ta were an assembly in which the 
people voted divided into tribes, according to their regions 
or wards. They were held to create inferior magistrates, 
to elect certain priests, to make laws, and hold trials. 

The comitia continued to be assembled for upwards of 
700 years, when that liberty was abridged by Julius CcEsar^ 
and after him hy Augustus, each of whom shared the right 
of creating magistrates with the people. Tiberius deprived 
the people altogether of the right of election. 

Priests. The ministers of religion did not form a distinct 
order from the Roman citizens, but were chosen from the 
most honourable men in the state. Some of the priests 
were common to all the gods ; others appropriated to a 
particular deity : of the former kind, the most important 
were the pontif'ices, the aii'gures, the harus' pices, the qain- 
decem'viri, and the septem'viri ; who were all subject to the 
pont'fex tnaximus, or high priest, chosen by the people. 

The pontifices among the Romans were priests, 15 in 
number, who judged all causes relating to religion, regu- 
lated the feasts, sacrifices, and all other sacred institutions, 
and inspected the lives and manners of the inferior priests. 
The pon'tifex max'imus, or high priest, was a person of 
great dignity and authority : he held his office for life, 
and all the other priests were subject to him. 

The augures, or augurs, were 16 in number, and were 
of great authority. It was their office to foretell future 
events, to interpet dreams, oracles, prodigies, &c., and 
to say whether any action would be fortunate or not. 
They divined the future chief]y in five ways — from the 
appearance of the heavens, as thunder and lightning ; 
from the singing or flight of birds; from the eating of 
chickens ; from quadrupeds ; and from uncommon accidents, 
as sneezing, stumbling, seeing apparitions, &c. &ic. 



ROME. lOl 

The harus'pices were priests whose business it was to 
look upon the beasts offered in sacrifice, and by them to 
divine the success of any enterprise, and to obtain omens 
of futurity. They derived their omens from the entrails 
of beasts ; also from the flame, smoke, and other circum- 
stances attending the sacrifice. 

The quindecem'viriweve 15 priests who had the charge 
of the Sib'ylline books^ which were three prophetic volumes, 
said to have been procured from a woman of extraordi- 
nary appearance, in the time of Tarquin the Proud. They 
were supposed to contain the fate of the Roman empire, 
and were kept in a stone chest under the Capitol. 

The semptein'viri were seven priests who prepared the 
sacred feasts at the gaities, processions, and other solemn 
occasions ; and they were also assistants to the pontifices. 

The priests of particular deities were called Flam'ines ; 
the chief of them were the Dia'lis^ priest of Jupiter ; the 
Sa'lii^ priests of Mars ; the Lupe'vii^ priests of Pan ; the 
Poti'tii^ priests of Her'cules ; the Gal'li, priests of Cyb'ele ; 
and tte Vestal Virgins, consecrated to the worship of Vesta. 

The Romans worshipped their gods in temples conse- 
crated by the augurs; also in groves. Their worship 
consisted chiefly in prayer, vows, and sacrifice. 

Festivals. The Romans celebrated feasts in January in 
honour of Janus ; in February were the Lujierca-lia^ or 
feasts of Pan, and the Fera'Ua, in honour of ghosts or 
spirits of the deceased ; in March, the Matrona'Va., a feast 
kept by the Roman matrons, and the Quinqua'tria, in 
honour of Minerva ; in April, the Cerea'Ha, in honour of 
Ceres ; in December, the Saturna'lia, or the feasts of 
Saturn, the most celebrated of all the festivals. There 
were besides many other festivals. 

Games. The shows exhibited in the circus maximus 
were chariot and horse races ; contests of streng-th and 
agility ; mock fights on horse-back ; combats of wild beasts ; 
representations of horse and foot battles ; and naumachice.^ 
or mock naval battles. 

Gladiators. The gladiators were persons who foug-ht 
with weapons in a public circus or amphitheatre, for the 
amusement of the people. These combats were intro- 
duced about the 400th year of the city, and became a 
most favourite entertainment. The combatants were, at 
first, composed of captives, slaves, and condemned male- 
9* 



102 ROME. 

factors, who were regularly trained for the combat ; but 
in the more degenerate period of the empire, free-born 
citizens, and even senators engaged in this disgraceful 
and dangerous amusenient. Great numbers of men were 
destroyed in these inhuman exhibitions. After the triumph 
of Trajan over the Dacians, spectacles were exhibited 
for 123 days, in which 11,000 animals of diiferent kinds 
were killed; and 10,000 gladiators fought. 

Triumph. A triumph was a solemn procession, in which 
a victorious general and his army ailvanced through the 
city to the Capitol It was the highest military honour 
which could be obtained in the Roman state, and was re- 
served for those generals, who, by hard-earned victories 
and glorious achievements, had added to the territories of 
the commonwealth, or had delivered the state from threat- 
ened danger. The procession began from the Campus 
Martins, and passed through the most public places in th-- 
city to the Capitol ; the streets being strewed with flow- 
ers, and the altars smoking with incense. It was composed 
of musicians, oxen for sacrifice, carriages carrying the 
spoils taken from the enemy, the captive kings or leaders 
and their attendants, and after the whole, the triumphant 
general, drest in purple, embroidered with gold, with a 
crown of laurel upon his head, and other decorations. 

Dress. The most most distinguished parts of the Roman 
dress were the toga and the tu'nica. The toga, or gown, 
worn by Roman citizens only, was loose and flowing, and 
covered the whole body; it had no sleeves, and was dis- 
posed in graceful folds, to give the wearer a majestic 
appearance. The toga viri'lis, or manly gown, was as- 
sumed by young men at the age of 17 years. — The tunica, 
or tunic, was a white woollen vest, which came down a 
little below the knees before, and to the middle of the 
leg behind, and was fastened tight about the waist by a 
girdle. 

Meals. The principal meals of the Romans was called 
ccena of supper, which took place about three o'clock in 
the afternoon, and exceeded in luxury every thing known 
in modern times. The early Romans lived chiefly on 
bread and pot-herbs ; but when riches were introduced 
by their conquests, luxury seized all ranks, and every 



ROME. 103 

thing was ransacked to gratify the appetite. In the early 
ages, the Romans sat at meals, but afterwards they re- 
clined on sumptuous couches. Their ordinary drink at 
feasts was wine, which they mixed with water, and some- 
times with spices. 

Forum. The Forum was the principal public place in 
the city. It was a large, oblong, open space, where the 
assemblies of the people were held, where justice was 
administered, and public business transacted. It was en- 
tirely surrounded with arched porticoes, within each were 
spacious halls, called basil'iccB^ where courts of justice were 
sit for the decision of private affairs. 

Campus Martins. The Campus Martins, or Field of 
Mars, was a large plain, without the city, along the Tiber, 
where the Roman youth practised all kinds of athletic 
exercises and sports, and learned the use of arms. It was 
adorned with the statues of famous men, and with tri- 
umphal arches, columns, porticoes, and other magnificent 
structures. 



MODERN HISTORY. 



THE MIDDLE AGES, 



1. History is divided into Ancient and Modern; but 
diflferent writers have assumed different periods for mark- 
ing the line of separation between these two divisions ; 
some adopting, for the dividing period, the Christian era ; 
some, the subversion of the Weatern Empire of the Romans ; 
and others, the establishment of the JVew Em,pire of the 
West under Charlemagne. 

2. Another general division of history is into three 
portions ; Ancient History ; the History of the Middle 
Ages; axxd Modern History. The Middle Ages, considered 
as a distinct period of history, comprise about a thousand 
years, from the 5th to the 15th century; or from the 
-subversion of the Western Empire of the Romans to that 
of the Eastern Empire. During these centuries, Europe 
was sunk in the grossest ignorance ; hence this period is 
often styled the Dark Ages. 

3. Literature began to decline after the reign of Au' 
gustus ; after the invasion of the Goths and Vandals, it 
became almost extinct, and Europe exhibited a melan- 
choly picture of ignorance, barbarism, and superstition. 
Many persons of the highest rank and in the most eminent 
stations, could neither read nor write. The human mind 
was debased ; the common people had no learning, nor 
any sense of its value : the little knowledge of litera- 
ture which existed, was confined chietly to ecclesiastics 
and monks; yet many of the clergy did not understand 
the service which it was their duty daily to recite Books 
were extremely scarce, and could be procured only at an 
immense price. The New Testament was rarely to be 
found, and many bishops had never seen a copy of it. 

4. In the darkest part of this period, the light of the 
Gospel was almost extinguished : Christianity had lost 
nearly all its original features, and was corrupted into a 



106 MODERN HISTORY. 

most degrading superstition. The state of morals, both 
among the clergy and laity, was exceedingly low ; and 
the people were under the control of a crafty and haughty 
priesthood, who rendered religion subservient chiefly to 
their temporal interests and ambitious designs. — The ab- 
surd modes of trial by ordeal and by combat^ were exten- 
sively made use of, as methods of discovering guilt and 
innocence. 

5. All the present sovereignties of Europe have been 
founded since the subversion of the Western Empire of 
the Romans. Of all the ancient monarchies in that quarter 
of the world, the Eastern Empire alone subsisted during 
the Middle Ages. In the 7th century was founded the 
Mahometan or Saracen empire, which spread itself in Asia, 
Africa, and Europe ; and for a considerable period, sur- 
passed all other contemporary states in the cultivation of 
literature and science. 

6. Some of the most remarkable circumstances which 
characterize the history and state of society, during the 
Middle Ages, are the Feudal System, the Crusades, and 
Chivalry. A short notice of these, and of the Saracens, 
may properly precede the history of modern states. 

7. The Feudal System is supposed to have had its origin, 
or to have received its earliest improvement, among the 
Lombards, immediately after they had established them- 
selves in Italy, in the latter part of the 6th century. It 
was adopted by Charlemagne ; afterwards by most of the 
princes of Europe; and it was introduced into England 
hy William the Conqueror. 

8. Under this system, the nobles, or barons, enjoyed a 
subordinate sovereignty in their own domains : their vas- 
sals were in complete subjection to them, and were bound 
to the performance of military sei vice. The nobles owed 
a species of allegiance to the king ; but when obedience 
was refused, it could be enforced only by war, and not by 
law. A k ngdom resembled a cluster of confederated 
states under a common head ; and was frequently a 
scene of turbulence and distraction. The great maes of 
the people, styled serfs or villeins, who cultivated the soil, 
were in a state of miserable servitude, and weve. obliged 
to remain on the estates of their lords. 



THE ARABS OR SARACENS. l@7 



THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 

1. Before the time of Ma' hornet^ the Arabians were a 
rude nation, living generally in independent tribes, who 
traced their descent from hhmael, and professed a mixed 
religion, compounded of Judaism and idolatry. They had 
had, as a nation, but little intercourse with the neighbour- 
ing kingdoms. 

2. The Saracens^ however, a people who inhabited the 
north-western part of Arabia, and whose name was after- 
wards applied to most of the Arabian nations, had, before 
this period, been induced, by the hope of plunder, to for- 
sake their deserts, and had become alternately the support 
and terror of the tottering empires of Rome and of Persia* 
They sold their services, as mercenaries, to those who 
would pay most liberally, and their bravery generally in- 
sured victory, 

3. Arabia had afforded an asylum to the persecuted 
Christians of different sects ; and at the end of the 6th 
century, Christianity had become the prevailing religion 
in some parts of the country. It was, however, a most cor- 
rupt form of Christianity, inculcating the worship of saints 
and images, with many other absurd and superstitious 
ceremonies ; and among both the priests and the people, 
a general depravity of manners prevailed. 

4. Such was the state of Arabia, when Ma'homet, or 
Moham' ined, that most extraordinary and successful im- 
postor, appeared. He was a native of Mecca, a man of no 
education, but of great natural talents. In 609, when 
about 40 years of age, he pretended to have received a 
divine commission to propagate anew religion. He with- 
drew to a place of retirement, where he affirmed that he 
held conferences with the angel Gabriel. These dis- 
courses were collected into a volume, called the Koran^ 
which is the Mahometan bible. Ma'homet performed no 
miracles, but appealed chiefly to the excellence of the 
doctrine contained in the Koran, and to the elegance of ite 
style, as proofs of its inspiration. 

5. The two leading doctrines of his religion were these, 
namely, " There is hut one God, and Mahomet is his prophet.'''' 
He taught that others, at various times, as Abraham, Mo- 
ses, and Jesus Christ, had been divinely commissioned te 



JOS THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 

teach mankind ; but that he hiniself was the last and 
greatest of the prophets. He adopted some of the morality 
of the gospel, an! retained many of the rites of Judaism, 
and some of the Arabian superstitions, particularly the 
pilgrimage to Mecca. But he owed his success, in a great 
measure, to his allowing his followers great latitude in 
licentious indulgences, and to his promising them, as their 
future reward, a paradise of sensual pleasures. He 
propagated his religion by the sword; stimulated the 
courage of his followers by inculcating the strictest pre- 
destinarianism or fatalism; and roused their enthusiasm by 
the assurance of a martyr's crown to every one who should 
fall in battle. 

6. At the beginning of his efforts he had but little suc- 
cess in making proselytes. His first converts were his 
wife Caclija^ his slave Zeid, his cousin and son-in-law, the 
famous Ali, and his father-in-law Abu-beker, who was a man 
of influence. These, together with ten others, were all 
whom he had persuaded to acknowledge the truth of his 
mission, at the end of three years. 

7. A popular tumult being raised against him at Mecca, 
he was compelled, in order to save his life, to escape ; and 
he fled in disguise to Medi'na. His flight, or Hegy'ra, is 
the Mahometan era, corresponding to the year A. D. 622. 
He was carried into Medina in triumph, by 500 of its 
richest citizens, and there assumed the sacerdotal and 
regal oflice. He placed himself at the head of an army 
of his converts, and began to propagate his religion by 
the sword : having defeated his enemies, he entered his 
native city Mecca, in 629, as a triumphant conqueror. He 
fought, in person, nine battles, subdued all Arabia, extended 
his conquests to Syria, and, after a career of victory, died 
at Medina, at the age of 63, ten years after his flight 
from Mecca to that city. 

8. Ma'homet never hesitated to make use of the worst 
pas-^ions of his ibllovvprs for the advancement of his 
purposes ; and he had frequent recourse to the most 
wanton cruelty and the grossest perfidy, in the progress 
of his conquests. He was possessed of unbounded am- 
bition ; he affected the most enthusiastic devotion and 
ostentatious piety ; and, with the exception of one species 
of licentiousness, in which he indulged himself without 
restraint, he manifested a most rigid austerity.— His fol- 



THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 109 

lowers term their religion Islam; and call themselves 
Mussulmans or Moslems, that is, true believers or or- 
thodox. 

9. Ma'homet was succeeded by Ahu-heker^ who is stjled 
the first Caliph, which signifies, in Arabic, successor or 
vicar. He continued the career of conquest, and with the 
aid of his general Caled, defeated a great army of the 
Greek emperor Herac'lius, took Damascus, and died in the 
third year of his reign. At his death he bequeathed the 
sceptre to the brave Otnar. " I have no occasion for the 
place," said Omar; '• but the place has occasion for you," 
replied the dying caliph. 

10. Omar with the assistance of his favourite general 
Obeidah, in one campaign, deprived the Greek empire of 
Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, and Chaldea ; and in a 
second campaign, he reduced to the Mussulman dominion 
and religion, the whole empire of Persia. His army, 
under Amrou, took Alexandria and subdued Egypt. 

11. Amrou being requested to spare the Alexandrian 
library, wrote for directions respecting it to Omar, who 
returned the following answer, characteristic of an ig- 
norant barbarian and fanatic. " If these writings agree 
with the Koran, they are useless, and need not be pre- 
served ; if they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought 
to be destroyed." The sentence was rigorously executed ; 
and the whole library, said to contain from 600,000 to 
700,000 volumes, was burnt. This was the greatest loss 
to literature that is recorded in history. 

12. Omar, during a reign of 10 years, reduced 36,000 
cities and villages to his obedience, demolished 4,000 
Christian churches or temples, and erected 1,4.10 mosques 
for Mahometan worship. He was finally assassinated, and 
succeeded by Othman, who added Bactriana and a part of 
Tartary to the dominion of the caliphs. On his death, 
All, who had married Fai'ema, the daughter of Mahomet, 
was elect d to the caliphate. He is reputed the bravest 
and most virtuous of the caliphs, and his reign was glori- 
ous, though of only five years' duration. In the space oi 
less than half a century, the Saracens raised an empire 
more extensive than what then remained of the Roman ; 
and if! 100 years from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca 
to Medina, the dominions of his successors extended from 
India to the Atlaniic, comprehending the widely distant 

IQ 



110 THE ARABS OR SARACENS. 

regions of Persia, Syria, Asia -Minor, Arabia, Egypt, the 
North of Africa, and Spain. 

13. The reign of Jlli forms a remarkable era in the 
Mussulman history, on account of a schism which then 
arose, and which still exists. The partisans of Ali con- 
sider Abu-beker, Omar, and Othman as usurpers, and 
are branded by their adversaries with the name of Shiites 
or Sectaries. The opponents of Ali hold the first three 
caliphs in veneration ; they style themselves Sonnites or 
Traditionaries^ because they follow the traditions ; whereas 
the Shiites acknowledge the Koran only. These two par- 
ties hate and anathematize each other. The Persians 
are of the sect of Ali ; the Turks are Sonnites and Otto- 
mans, or disciples of Othman. 

14. Ali removed the seat of the Mussulman sovereigns 
from Mecca to Cvja on the Euphrates ; and in 768, it was 
removed to Bagdad ; hence they are styled caliphs of 
Bagdad. Walid, the 12th caliph, who reigned in the 
fore part of the 8th century, was the first that founded a 
hospital, and built caravansaries or public inns, for the 
accommodation of travellers. 

15. The first race of caliphs were styled Ommi'adesj 
from Ommiyah; of these 19 reigned in succession; after 
which began the dynasty of the Jibas'sides, who were de- 
scended from Abbas, the uncle of Mahomet. Mmansor, 
the second caliph of this race, built Bagdad, and made it 
the seat of the Saracen empire, and it became one of the 
largest and most splendid cities in the world. He was a 
liberal patron of learning and science ; it was he who 
first introduced cultivation of them among the Saracens. 

16. The reign o{ Haroun al Raschid, the 25th caliph, who 
was contemporary with Charlemagne, was the most splendid 
of the whole dynasty, and is regarded as the Augustan age of 
Saracen or Arabic literature. This prince rendered him- 
self illustrious by his valour, generosity, and benevolence ; 
by his equitable government, and his patronage to learned 
men. It is to these times that a great part of our proverbs 
and romances must be referred; and the Thousand and 
one J^ights have rendered Haroun al Raschid more cele- 
brated than his victorious march through Asia. Schools 
of learning were, at this period, established in the princi- 
pal towns. The sciences chiefly cultivated, were medicine, 
o-eometry, and astronomy : poetry and fiction also command- 
ed attention. Some of the successors of Haroun al Raschid 



THE ARABS OR SARACENS. lU 

followed his footsteps in patronizing learning. Literature 
was also successfully cultivated by the Saracens of Spain 
and Africa. 

17. From the time of the removal of the seat of gov- 
ernment to Bagdad, the importance of Arabia began to 
decline. Many chiefs of the interior provinces, rose to 
assert their independence, and withdrew themselves from 
the civil jurisdiction of the caliph, regarding him only as 
the head of their religion. 

18. The Saracens might have established an immense 
empire, if they had acknowledged but one head ; but as 
their conquests extended, their states soon became dis- 
united. Spain, Egypt, Morocco, and India had, at an 
early period, their separate sovereigns, who continued to 
respect the caliph of Bagdad as the successor of the pro- 
phet, but acknowledged no temporal subjection to his 
government. 

19. The house of Abbas furnished 37 caliphs, who 
reigned in succession. Bagdad continued to be the seat 
of the Saracen empire 490 years, during which long 
period, it sustained several obstinate sieges, and was the 
scene of many a bloody revolution. At length, in the 
€56th year of the Hegyra, A, D. 1258, Bagdad was taken 
by Hulaku, the grandson of the celebrated Jenghis Khan ; 
the reigning caliph, Al Mostasem^ was put to death ; the ca- 
liphate was abolished, and the Saracen empire terminated. 

20. The immediate successors of Mahomet found them- 
selves under the necessity of affecting that enthusiastic 
devotion and rigid austerity, by which he had established 
his character as a prophet, and his power as a sovereign. 
All the time they could spare from the duties of royalty, 
was spent in prayer or preaching before the sepulchre of 
the impostor. Their manners were modest and unassum- 
ing; they affected great humility, practised various mor- 
tifications, and condescended to perform the meanest 
offices. Satisfied with the power of royalty, they affected 
to disdain its pomp. But when their power was confirmed 
beyond the fear of revolution, they forgot the real or 
affected virtues, which their predecessors had found it 
necessary to practise, and became distinguished for their 
oppression, their love of show and magnificence, their 
luxury and effeminacy. 

21. As the caliphs succeeded to both the regal and 



llg THE CRUSADES. 

sacerdotal offices which Mahomet had assumed, they were 
the most absolute monarchs in the world. No privileged 
order was recognised in the Saracen empire, to impose 
a salutary restraint on the will of the despots The Koran 
was, indeed, prescribed as the rule of their actions, and it 
inculcated the duti<^s of humanity and justice ; but they 
were themselves the interpreters and judges of that code ; 
nor did any Mussulman dare dispute their infallibility. 
Their office, uniting spiritual with temporal power, bore 
a striking resemblance to that of the popes ; nor did the 
resemblance fail with regard to pomp, haughtiness, and 
oppression. 



THE CRUSADES. 

1. The Crusades, or Holy Wars, were military expe- 
ditions, undertaken by the Christians of Europe, for the 
deliverance of Palestine, and particularly the sepulchre 
of our Saviour, from the dominion of the Mahometans. 
These enterprises involved all the nations of Western 
Europe ; yet in most of them the French were more dis- 
tinguished than the rest. In 637, Jerusalem was conquered 
by the Saracens, who were induced, by self-interest, to 
permit Christian pilgrims to visit the city. But when the 
Turks, a wild and ferocious tribe of Tartars, got possession 
of Jerusalem, in 1065, the pilgrims were no longer safe, 
but were exposed to insult and robbery. The dangers of 
pilgrimage, painted in the most frightful colours, by those 
who returned from the holy city, threatened the discon- 
tinuance of what was regarded, in that age of ignorance 
and superstition, a sacred duty. 

2. Peter the Hermit, a native of Amiens, in France, 
having returned from a painful pilgrimage, conceived the 
design of arming the sovereigns and people of Europe, 
for the purpose of rescuing the holy sepulchre out of 
the hands of the intidels. With this view he travelled 
from kingdom to kingdom, describing the sufferings of 
the pilgrims with the most inflammatory pathos, and 
Galling aloud for vengeance. He exhibited, in his own 
person, a complete specimen of monkish austerity and 
frantic enthusiasm. His body, which was covered with a 



THE CRUSADES. 113 

coarse garment, seemed wasted with fasting ; his head 
was bare ; his feet naked ; he bore aloft in his hand a 
large and weighty crucifix; and his prayers were frequent, 
long, and loud. He accosted every person whom he met, 
and entered, without hesitation, the palaces of the great, 
and the cottages of the poor. 

3. Urban II., the reigning pontiff, pitched upon this 
enthusiast as a fit person to commence the execution of a 
grand design, which had before been entertained by the 
popes, particularly Gregory VII., of arming all Christen- 
dom against the Mahometans. The project was opened 
in two general councils, which were held at Placentia and 
Clermunt. and attended by many thousands. The pope 
himself harangued the multitude, and proposed that the 
crnxs should be the badge of the combatants ; and from 
this badge the expeditions were termed crusades. Plenary 
indulgence and full absolution were proclaimed to all who 
should devote themselves to the service. 

4. An immense multitude of ambitious and disorderly 
nobles, with their dependants, eager for enterprise and 
rapine, and assured of eternal salvation, immediately took 
the cross. Robbers, incendiaries, murderers, and thousands 
of inferior offenders, readily embraced the opportunity of 
making expiation for their sins ; and their zeai was in- 
creased by the hope of plunder and of sensual gratifica- 
tion. Peter the Hermit assumed the office of general, for 
which he was totally unqualified, and placing himself at 
the head of 80,000 recruits, commenced his march towards 
the East, in the spring of 1096. This army was followed 
by a promiscuous assemblage of 200,000 persons, more 
like the collected band tti of Europe, than a regularly 
constituted soldiery. The Jews of Germany were their 
first victims ; but their outrages in Fiungary and Bulgaria, 
drew upon them a severe retaliation from the inhabitants, 
so that not more than a third part of this undisciplined 
multitude arrived with Peter at Constantinople. These 
were met, by sultan Solyman, on the plain of JVice, and 
almost totally destroyed. 

5. But a more valuable part of the expedition was still 
in reserve, and soon after arrived at Constantinople. 
These were men properly trained and appointed, led b}^ 
experienced and able generals. The supreme command 
was conferred on Godfrey of Bouillon.) who was supported 

10* 



114 THE CRUSADES. 

by Baldwin his brother, Robert, duke of Normandy, Hugh, 
count of Vermandois, Raymond, count of Thoulouse, and 
various other distinguished princes of Europe. When 
reviewed in the neighbourhood of Nice, they amounted 
to 100,000 horse, and 600,000 foot, including a train of 
women and followers. 

6. Having taken JYice and defeated Sol'yman, they pro- 
ceeded eastward, conquered Edessa, took the city of An- 
tioch, vanquished an army, of 600,000 Saracens, and being 
reduced to little more than a twentieth part of their 
original number, advanced to Jerusalem, which, after a 
siege of 40 days, was taken by storm, and the whole of 
its Mahometan and Jewish inhabitants were barbarously 
massacred. The heroic Go Ifrey was proclaimed king of 
Jerusalem by the troops, and he soon after defeated the 
suUan with an immense army at As'calon ; but after havings 
reigned one year, he was compelled to give up his king- 
dom to the pope's legate. 

7. The conquerors divided Syria and Palestine into 
four states; and seeing their object accomplished, they 
began to return to Europe. The Turks gradually re- 
covered their strength ; and the crusaders, who remained 
in Asia, finding themselves surrounded by foes, were un- 
der the necessity of soliciting aid from Christendom. An 
army of adventurers, collected by Hugh^ the brother of 
Phliip I. of France, met with a fate similar to thai of the 
army under Peter the Hermit, being cut off in hostilities, 
first with the Greeks, and afterwards with Solyman. 

8. The second crusade was preached by the famous St^ 
Bernard, and Louis VII. of France, and Conrad III. of 
Germany, with 300,000 of their subjects, were persuaded 
to assume the cross. Conrad took the lead, but hi'^ army 
was almost entirely extirpated near Ico'nium ; the French, 
under Louis, were totally defeated near Laodice'a ; and 
the two monarchs, after witnessing the destruction of the 
finest armies which their countries had produced, return- 
ed with shame to their dominions. 

9. The illustrious Sal'adin, who, about the year 1174, 
raised himself from an attendant of the caliphs, to the 
sovereignty of Egypt, Arabia, Syria, and Persia, formed 
the design of recovering Palestine from the Christians. 
Having defeated their army in the battle of Tiberias, he 
besieged and took Jerusalem, and made its sovereign, Gity 
if Lusignan,. prisoaer* 



THE CRUSADES, 1 r5 

10. The reigning- sovereigns of the principal states of 
Europe, Phil.p Augustus of France, Richard I. of England, 
and Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, were men of emi- 
nent talents ; and by the influence of pope Clement III., 
they were induced to unite in a third crusade. The em- 
peror Frederick was drowned in CiSicia, in crossing a 
small river, and his army mostly destroyed. The English 
and French were more foriunate : they took Ptolema'is ; 
but Richard and Philip quarrelled I'rom jealousy of each 
other's glory, and the French monarch returned in disgust 
to his country. 

11. Richard ably sustained the contest with Saladin,. 
whom he defeated near A.s'calon: but his army was re- 
,duced by famine, fatigue, and i ::testine quarrels. Return- 
ing through Germany, unaccompanied by his troops, he 
was arrested, and kept in prison, till an immense ransom 
was procured from his subjects. Before his departure 
from Syria, he had made a peace with Saladin, who soon 
after died. 

12 Notwithstanding the misery which had been the 
uniform result of the crusades, such was the madness of 
the age. that fresh adventurers were ever ready to renew 
them. In 1202, Baldwin, count of Flanders, collected an 
army to act against the Mahometans in a fourth crusade ; 
but he began, as others had done, with the eastern 
Christians. Arriving at Constantino^jle at a time when 
there was a dispute respecting the succession, his inter- 
ference tempted one claimant to assassinate his rival, and 
Baldwin, after despatching the other by a public execution, 
and indulging his followers with the plunder of the city^ 
took possession of the imperial throne of the Eastern Em- 
pire, -satisfied with this splendid acquisition, he attempted 
nothing against the Saracens. 

13. John de Brienne, a French nobleman, at the head 
of 100,000 men, made a descent upon Egypt, with the 
design of destroying the power of its sultan at the seat of 
government. Partial success and ultimate ruin, was the 
issue of this expedition. 

14 The crusading fanaticism in Europe had, at length,, 
begun to languish ; but it was again revived by Louis IX=. 
of Frar.ce, a monarch alike distinguished for being deeply 
imbued with the superstition of the age, and for possess- 
ing every amiable and heroic virtue. After four years' 



il6 THE CRUSADES. 

preparation, he set out for the Holy Lmid, with his queen, 
his three brothers, arid all the knights of France. 

15. He began his enterprise by invading Egypt, and 
after losing one half of his numerous army by sickness, 
he was utterly defeated and taken prisoner by the Sara- 
cens. Having ransomed himself and his followers, he 
proceeded to Palestine, where he remained for a consid- 
erable time, and then returning to France, he reigned 
wisely and prosperously for 13 years. But the same 
frenzy assailing him again, he embarked on another cru- 
sade against the Moors in Africa, where he, and the 
greater part of army, were destroyed by a pestilence. 
This was the last of these mad enterprises. 

16. Effects of the Crusades. The crusades owed their 
origin to the fanaticism and superstition of an ignorant and 
barbarous age. superadded to ambition, love of military 
achievement, and a desire of plunder. No other military 
enterprise ever commanded the attention of Europe so gen- 
erally or so iong; and no other affords a more memorable 
monument of human folly. They assumed the sacred char- 
acter of religion, and were styled Holy Wars. Their tracks 
marked the three quarters of the world, which were then 
knoivn,. with blood; and for nearly two centuries, they af- 
flicted almost every family of Europe with the most painful 
privations. It is computed that during their continuance, 
no less than two millions of Europeans were buried in the 
East. Those who survived, were soon blended with the 
Mahometan population of Syria, and in a iew years, not a 
vestige of the Christian conquest remained. 

17. These barbarous expeditions, though productive 
of so much misery, had, nevertheless, a powerful influ- 
ence in producing a great and beneficial change in the 
aspect of society. Their effects were observable, in a 
greater or less degree, on the political condition, the 
manners and customs, the commerce, the literature, and the 
religion of Europe. 

18. At the commencement of the crusades, the Feudal 
System prevailed throughout Europe. The barons who 
engaged in them, were obliged to sell their lands, in order 
to procure the means of conveying their troops to a foreign 
land. In this way the aristocracy was weakened, wealth 
more widely distributed, and tlie lower classes began to 
acquire property, influence, and a spirit of independence. 



THE CRUSADES. ll"? 

Kings, likewise, raised money by selling to towns immu- 
nities and privileges, such as the right of electing their 
own magistrates, and being governed by their own muni- 
cipal laws. 

19. In the ages immediately preceding the crusades, 
the manners and mode of life which prevailed in Europe, 
Avere gross and barbarous ; and so, indeed, they continued 
for a long time after their terminaiion ; yet a gradual im- 
provement was soon visible. Travelling in foreign coun- 
tries has a tendency to enlarge the views, and polish the 
manners. In the East, particularly in Constantinople, the 
crusaders became acquainted with modes of life superior to 
what they had been accustomed to in their own countries, 
and of which, on their return, they were ready to recom- 
mend the adoption. The crusades gave rise to various 
orders of knighthood, especially those of St. John of Jerv^^ 
sahm, and the Templars. They imbued chivalry with fa-' 
ligion, and brought it to maturity. 

20. These enterprises had a most beneficial influence 
on commerce and the arts. Commerce had been carried 
on upon only a very limited scale ; and European nations 
had never had their attention sufficiently drawn to the 
numerous advantages of water-transport, till the destruc- 
tive disasters of the first crusaders, in attempting a march 
by land, forced upon the minds of their followers the 
expediency of conveying their troops by water. By the 
consequent frequency of voyages to Palestine, the arts of 
navigation and ship-building were rapidly improved ; and 
from this period may be dated the commercial prosperity 
of Pisa, Gen'oa, and Ven'ice. 

21. The crusades, although immediately injurious both 
to literature and religion., were, nevertheless, ultimately 
beneficial. They commenced at a time of the profound- 
est ignorance and the grossest superstition ; (nearly all that 
remained of nncient art and science being, at that period, 
confined to Constantinople and the more enlightened of 
the Saracens;) during their continuance, military fame 
was the chief object of ambition to all who aspired to 
distinction ; and that blind and fanatical devotion to the 
will of the priesthood, without which the people could 
never have been seduced into so wild an enterprise, con- 
tinued undiminished. But after two centuries of disaster, 
Europe began to suspect the folly of these expeditions, 



118 CHIVALRY. 

and to doubt the infallibility of their promoters ; and the 
human mind was gradually prepared for an emancipation 
from bigotry and servility. 

22. It may be observed, that if, by the superintendence 
of providence, these benefits to society grew out of the 
crusades, they were diametrically opposite to what their 
projectors intended ; that these were results Avhich they 
had neither the wisdom to foresee, nor the virtue to de-r 
sign. 



CHIVALRY. 

1. Chivalry was an institution in which valour, gallaQ- 
try, and religion, were strangely blended. It constitutes 
one of the most remarkable features in the history of 
European nations in the Middle Ages, and during several 
centuries, it produced a wonderful influence upon their 
opinions, habits, and manners ; the effects of which may 
still be traced. Its distinguishing features were a romantic 
spirit of adventure ; a love of arms, and of the rewards of 
valour ; an eagerness to succour the distressed, and to re- 
dress wrongs ; high sentiments of honour and religion ; 
and a devoted and respectful attachment to the female 
sex. 

2. The early history of chivalry is involved in obscu- 
rity ; and different theories have been formed with regard 
to the period, the nation, and the circumstances, to which 
it owed its origin. But the best supported account ap- 
pears to be that which fixes its origin, as a regular institu- 
tion, in the 11th century. Before this period, however, 
the great principles of it were to be found in the manners 
and customs of the Gothic nations, among whom the pro- 
fession of arms was the only employment which was 
esteemed honourable, and w'>o were distinguished for their 
delicate and respectful gallantry to the female sex. It 
was embodied into form and regularity by the Feudal Sys- 
tem ; and was afterwards brought to maturity and splen- 
dour by the Crusades, and, by the change wrought upon 
it by these expeditions, was rendered as much a religious, 
as a miliary institution. Some improvements in it are 
supposed also to have been derived from the Saracens. 



CHIVALRY. 119 

3. Chivalry pervaded almost all parts of Europe ; yet 
Spain and France appear to have been the countries in 
which it was first regularly formed into a system, and 
w^here it flourished in its greatest purity and splendour. 
In Germany also, at an early period, it arrived at maturity ; 
but in England it was of later birth and slower growth. 

4. The sons of noblemen, who were destined for chi- 
valry, entered, at the age of seven years, on a course of 
education which was to prepare them for the performance 
of its duties, and the enjoyment of its honours. The place 
of their education was the castle of their father, or of 
some neighbouring noble. From the age of 7 to 14, the 
appellation given to these boys was Page or Varlet ; in 
old English ballads, Child; and at 14 they were raised to 
the rank, and received the title, of Esquire^ and were 
then authorized to carry arms. 

5. They were kept in constant and active employment, 
and waited on the master and mistress of the castle at 
home and abroad, and became accustomed to obedience 
and courteous demeanor. They were surrounded by noble 
ladies and valiant knights ; and the first impressions made 
on their minds, were those of love, gallantry, honour, and 
bravery. They were taught to reverence chivalry as 
containing every thing that was alluring and honourable ; 
and that the only means of attaining the highest honours, 
were devotion to the female sex, and skill and courage in 
warfare. 

6. By the ladies of the castle they were taught, at the 
same time, the rudiments of religion and love. " The 
love of God and the ladies," says Hallam, " was enjoined 
as a single duty. He who was faithful and true to his mis- 
tress, was held sure of salvation in the theology of the 
castles." In order that they might have opportunity to 
practise, in some degree, the instructions which they re- 
ceived, it was customary for each youth to select some 
young, accomplished, and virtuous lady, at whose feet he 
displayed all his gallantry, and who undertook to polish 
his manners. 

7. The esquires were employed in various subordinate 
offices in the castles, and as attendants on the knights, till 
they arrived at 21, which was the proper age for admit- 
ting them to the full honours of knighthood. The candi- 
date was required to prepare himself by ablutions, by 



120 CHIVALRY, 

rigid fasting, by passing the night in prayer, and by mak- 
ing a solemn confession of his sins ; and, as a type of the 
purity of manners which would be required of him, he 
was clothed in white. 

8. Having performed the preliminary rites, he then 
entered the church, and after an examination, if he were 
judged worthy of admission to the order of knighthood, 
he received the sacrament, and took an oath, consisting 
of 26 articles, in which, among other things, he swore 
that he wcnild be a good, brave, loyal, just, generous, and 
gentle knight, a champion of the church and the clergy, a 
protector of ladies, and a redresser of the wrongs of widows 
and orphans. 

9. While upon his knees, he received from the hands 
of the knights and the ladies the insignia of chivalry, his 
spurs, cuirass, coat of mail, and the other parts of his 
armour, and, in the last place, his sword. The most dis- 
tinguished chevalier then dubbed him, or bestowed on him 
the accolade, by striking him on the shoulder with his 
sword, which has been interpreted as an emblem of the 
last affront which it was lawful for him to endure. 

10. The most important part of the equipments of a 
knight, was his horse ; his distinguishing weapon was the 
lance: his other offensive arms consisted of a sword, dag- 
ger, battle-axe, and maces. His dress consisted of a long 
flowing robe, which reached down to his heels. 

11. "The virtues and endowments that were necessary 
to form an accomplished knight," says Dr. Henry, *•' in 
the flourishing times of chivalry, were such as these ; — 
beauty, strength, and agility of body ; great dexterity in 
dancing, wrestling, hunting, hawking, riding, tilting, and 
every other manly exercise ; the virtues of piety, chasti- 
tj', modesty, courtesy, loyalty, liberality, sobriety ; and 
above all, an inviolable attachment to truth, and an invin- 
cible courage." 

12. Such was the estimation in which knighthood was 
held, that, for a long time, no sovereign could be crowned 
till he had been knighted. Whoever had been dubbed 
became, as it were, a cit'zen of universal chivalry, and 
possessed various privileges and dignities, which were 
not limited to the territory of his sovereign, but extended 
throughout a great part of Europe. He had a right to 
Toam through the worid in quest of adventures, wh.chj 



ISHIVALfiY. J 21 

whether just or not in their purpose, were always esteemed 
honourable in proportion as they were perilous. 

13. He was authorized to propose a trial of skill with 
the lance to all those of his order whom he met, and to 
combat them with the utmost fury, if they did not ac- 
knowledge the lady to whom he had devoted himself, and 
whom they had never seen, the most beautiful in the 
world. When he challenged them to single combat, it 
was in the name of his mistress ; and he established her 
unparalleled beauty by vanquishing his antagonist, and 
compelling him to acknowledge her superior charms. 
The portrait, the device, the livery, or even the most 
trifling gift of his mistress, he cherished with the utmost 
fondness. The crest of his helmet ^as ornamented with 
the favours which she had bestowed upon him. When 
the sovereign led his army to the attack, his never failing 
injunction was, " Let every one think of his mistress." 

14. The influence of chivalry was not limited to either 
sex. The manners of the ladies of rank were necessarily 
polite and courteous ; for sxich they taught those of the 
chevaliers to be ; and it was their highest ambition to 
deserve and obtain the love of a valiant knight. As the 
laws of the institution made it the duty of a knight to 
protect the chastity and honour of the ladies, and forbade 
his speaking ill of them, or tamely hearing them spoken 
ill of by others, it was incumbent on him to warn them 
against the commission of every thing that might lower 
them in his opinion. 

15. Strictly decorous and respectful in his behaviour 
towards them, he expected they would never forfeit their 
claim to such behaviour. If, however, they transgressed 
the laws of modesty or prudence, he did not fail to stig- 
matize their failings in a way that would be keenly felt. 
If he passed the castle of one of this character, he mark- 
ed, in such a manner as could not be mistaken, the dwell- 
ing of a lady unworthy to receive a true chevalier. 

16. As the knights were ambitious to gain the esteem of 
the fair sex, by their heroic exploits and the protection 
which they afforded them ; so the ladies were ambiMous 
to merit such protection by their virtue. In accordance 
with this is the language of Spencer : 

It hath been through all ages ever seen, . 

That, with the praise of arms and cliivalry, 

u 



12£ CHIVALRY. 

The prize of beauty still hath joined been; 

And that for reason's special privity : 
Fo;r either doth on other much rely ; 

For he, me seems, most fit the fair to serve, 
That can her best defend from villany ; 

And she most fit his service doth deserve. 
That fairest is, and from her faith will never swerve. 

17. Chivalry enjoined the virtues of hospitality, hu- 
manity, and courtesy. Every true and loyal knight was 
expected to have the door of his castle constantly open. 
As soon as one chevalier entered the castle of another, he 
considered himself at home, and was treated as if he 
were so ; every thing that could contribute to his comfort 
and his luxury, was at his command. If he arrived wound- 
ed, every possible care was taken of him by the ladies, 
both young and old, who were proud of having in their 
possession remedies proper for such occasions. To a van- 
quished foe the most scrupulous and delicate attention was 
paid : he was treated rather as a conqueror, than as one 
who had been conquered. 

18. The favourite amusement and exercise of the 
knights consisted in justs and tournaments, the most splen- 
did of which were celebrated at coronations, royal mar- 
riages, and distinguished victories. " Every scenic per- 
formance of modern times," says Hallam, " must be tame 
in comparison of these animating scenes. At a tournament, 
the space inclosed within the lists was surrounded by 
sovereign princes and their noblest barons, by knights of 
established renown, and all that rank and beauty had most 
distinguished among the fair. Covered with steel, and 
known only by their emblazoned shields, or by the favours 
of their mistresses, a still prouder bearing, the combatants 
rushed forward to a strife without enmity, but not without 
danger. 

19. "Victory at a tournament was little less glorious, 
and perhaps, at the moment, more exquisitely felt, than in 
the field ; since no battle could assemble such witnesses 
of valour. ' Honour to the sons of the brave,' resounded 
amidst the din of martial music from the lips of the min- 
strels, as the conqueror advanced to receive the prize 
from his queen or his mistress ; while the surrounding 
multitude acknowledged, in his prowess of that day, an 
augury of triumphs that might, in more serious contests, 
be blended with those of his country." 



CHIVALRY. 12§ 

20. Absurd and ridiculous as the institution of chivalry 
appears, yet it had a powerful influence in producing a 
favourable change in the manners of society in a barbarous 
age ; and was wonderfully adapted to the taste and genius 
of martial nobles. It infused humanity into war at a time 
when the disposition of the age made it almost the constant 
business of life, and the ruling passion of persons of every 
rank : it introduced courtesy of manners when men were 
rude and uncultivated : it exacted and produced a scrupu- 
lous adherence to truth, at a time when its obligations 
were feebly felt, and the temptations to falsehood were 
numerous : it added an additional impulse and motive to a 
respectful and delicate attention to the female sex, when 
such attention was particularly necessary to them. 

21. As chivalry rose to splendour, and was embodied 
into form by the feudal system, so it fell along with it. 
The invention of gunpowder, and the consequent change 
in the mode of war ; the invention of the art of printing, 
and the diffusion of knowledge ; the extension of com- 
merce, and the increase and distribution of wealth, grad- 
ually produced the destruction of the feudal system, 
and put a period to the existence of chivalry. It arose 
principally from the peculiar state of society, the evils of 
which it was calculated, in some degree, to remove or 
alleviate ; it fell when that state of society and those evils 
had given way to the general diffusion of wealth and of 
knowledge. 

22. "The wild exploits of those romantic knights," 
says Dr. Robertson, " who sallied forth in quest of adven- 
tures, are well known, and have been treated with proper 
ridicule. The political and permanent effects of the spirit 
of chivalry, have been less observed. Perhaps the hu- 
manity which accompanies all the operations of war, the 
refinements of gallantry, and the point of honour, the 
three chief circumstances which distinguish modern from 
ancient manners, may be ascribed, in a great measure, to 
this whimsical institution, seemingly of little benefit to 
mankind. The sentiments which chivalry inspired had a 
wonderful influence on the manners and conduct during 
the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. They were so* 
deeply rooted, that they continued to operate after the 
vigour and reputation of the institution itself began to 
decline." 



124 CHIVALRY. 

23. But the actual morals of chivalry were by no means 
pure : its principles, like those of other institutions, werfe 
much superior to the practice of its professors ; and it 
fell far short of establishing and presei'ving that purity in 
the intercourse of the sexes, which it inculcated. The po«-.-^ 
try of the Troubadours, and the tales and romances which 
describe the manners of chivalry, all afford evidence of 
dissolute morals. 

24. The knights professed to redress wrongs, to relieve 
the oppressed, and to protect the defenceless ; but in per- 
forming these very acts, they were not unfrequently guilty 
of the grossest inju^ice and violence. Chivalry nourished 
a pernicious thirst for military renown, and cherished a 
love of war, founded more on feelings of personal resent- 
ment, than of public spirit. It, indeed, taught mankind to 
carry the civilities of peace into the operations of war, 
and to mingle politeness with the use of the sword ; but 
it also gave birth to a punctilious refinement, and sowed 
the seeds of that fantastic honour, the bitterness of whose 
fruits are still felt in the modern practice of duelling. 

25. The origin of the duel is traced to the Gothic na- 
tions. Under the feudal system, and during the age of 
chivalry, the duel was warmly patronized. It so far pre- 
vailed among the Germans, Danes, and Franks, that none 
were exempted from it but women, sick people, cripples, 
and such as were under 21 years of age, or above 60. 
Even ecclesiastics, priests, and monks were obliged to find 
a champion to fight in their stead. 

26. Laws and regulations were defined for it, in most 
of the kingdoms of Europe ; forms of prayer were like- 
wise prescribed ; and the combatants prepared themselves 
by taking the sacrament. It was then resorted to as a 
method of discovering truth and preventing perjury, with 
the belief of the interference of providence for the pun- 
ishment of the guilty, and the protection of the innocent. 
It is now practised as a mode of private revenge ; and its 
use is no longer supported by any plea derived from reason, 
religion, or superstition. 



FRANCE. i2f 



FRANCE. 



SECTION I. 



Merovingian Kings : Carlovingian Kings ; Charlemagnt, 
Src.—From A. D. 420 to 987. 

1. The history of France and that of England are inti- 
mately connected as they have, for many centuries, been 
rival states, and, during a great part of the time, engaged 
in war with each other. The kings of England, for a 
long time, assumed also the title of king of France, as 
they held possessions in that country, more or less exten- 
sive, from the time of William the Conqueror to that of 
queen Mary. 

2. The ancestors of the modern French were the Gauls 
or Celts, an enterprising and warlike people ; and it has 
been frequently remarked, that there is a striking simili- 
tude between the descendants and their progenitors. An- 
cient Gaul comprehended, in addition to modern France, 
the JVetherlands and the western part of Germany It was 
conquered and annexed to the Roman empire by Julius 
CcBsar, 51 years before the Christian era It received its 
modern name from the Franks, who were originally Ger- 
man tribes, inhabiting the districts on the Lower Rhine 
and the Weser, and who assumed the appellation of Franks. 
or Freemen, from their union to resist the dominion of the 
Romans. 

3 The Franks made an irruption into Gaul about the 
year 420, under their leader Pharamond, who is said to 
have been succeeded by CloUon, Mero-icsus, Childeric, 
and Clovis. The tirst race of the French kings is styled 
Merovingian, from Merovccus ; bat the authentic history 
of the monarchy commences in 481. with his grandson 
Clovis, who is regarded as its real founder, and who 
achieved the conquest of France, by defeating the Roman 
governor, and by marrying Clotildt, a Christian princess, 
and daughter of the king of Burarundy. In consequence 
of this marriage, Clovis and his subjects embraced Christ- 
ianity. He made Paris the seat of his government, and 
published the Salic laws, excluding females from the 
throne. 

4. The Merovingian kings, who were generally weak 
11* 



126 FRANCE. 

sovereigns, continued to possess the throne till 751. In 
690, Pepin cPHeristel^ mayor of the palace, the first officer 
under the crown, acquired the chief control, which he re- 
tained for many years, and left it to his son Charles Mariel, 
who gained a great victory over the Saracens, between 
Tours and Poictiers, and who was succeeded in office by 
his son Pepin le Bref^ or the Short, so called from his low 
stature, being only 4i feet high. 

5. Pepin governed France while the weak Childeric III. 
was nominally king ; and being a man of talents and am- 
bition, he proposed the question to pope Zachary, whether 
he himself or Childeric was the best entitled to the crown. 
Zachary, from interested motives, decided in favour of 
Pepin, who was accordingly crowned, and became the 
founder of the second or Carlovingian race of French 
kings. Pepin recompensed the services done him by the 
pope, by turning his arms against the Lombards in Italy, 
and by granting the exurchate of Ravenna and other ter- 
ritories to the see of Rome. In this manner the pope was 
raised to the rank of a temporal prince. 

6. Pepin was succeeded by his two sons, Charles and 
Carlo-man ; but the latter dying not long after the death 
of his father, Charles possessed the undivided sovereignty. 
This distinguished monarch is known in history by the 
title of Charlemagne or Charles the Great. Notwithstand- 
ing the diminutive stature of his father, he is said to have 
been seven feet in height, of a robust constitution, and ma- 
jestic appearance. 

7. Charlemagne was by far the greatest monarch of his 
age, and distinguished both as a conqueror and a states- 
man. He was engaged in war during most of his reign, 
had a long and bloody contest with the Saxons., put an end 
to the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy, by defeating 
Desidervus or Didier, their last sovereign, and made exten- 
sive conquests ; but he sustained a great defeat by the 
Spaniards at Roncevalles. In 800 he was crowned emperor of 
ike West by the pope. His empire comprised France, the 
Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, a great part of Italy, 
and part of Spain. He had no permanent capital, though 
Aix-la-Chapelle was for a long time his favourite resi- 
dence. 

8. Charlemagne was a luminary in a dark age, and an 
eminent patron of learning. "He stands alone," says 



FRANCE. 127 

Hallara, " like a beacon upon a waste, or a rock in the 
broad ocean." His court was frequer.ted by Alcuin and 
other learned men ; and he endeavoured to dispel the 
profound ignorance which generally prevailed. He mani- 
fested his zeal for religion by compelling those whom he 
subdued to receive Christian baptism, on the pain of being 
either made slaves or of suffering death. Succeeding 
generations, impressed with a grateful sense of the ser- 
vices which he rendered to the church, canonized his 
memory, and turned this bloody warrior into an eminent 
saint. 

9. His private character, though stained with vices, 
exhibited many estimable qualities. On days of ceremony, 
he made a great display of luxury and splendour in his 
apparel ; but at other times he was plain in his dress, and 
frugal in regard to his table. The econom}' of his family 
was characteristic of an age of great simplicity. He super- 
intended his farms, and trained his sons himself to manly 
exercises : the women belonging to his court made use of 
the needle, and managed the distaff; and he took delight 
in appearing ornamented with the productions of his wife 
and daughters. 

10. Charlemagne was succeeded by his son Louis the 
Debonnaire, or the Mild, whose reign was inglorious and 
turbulent, and who divided his dominions among his sons. 
The quarrels of the rival brothers, which commenced 
before the death of their father, involved their subjects 
in a sanguinary war, and the family contest was decided 
in a great battle, on the plains of Fonienay, where no less 
than 100,000 men are said to have fallen. A new division 
of the empire followed ; Charles the Bald receiving the 
western part of France, termed Aquitaine and Neustria ; 
Lothaire, Italy and some of the southern provinces of 
France ; and Louis, Germany. During the reign of Charles, 
the Normans, from Scandinavia, commenced their inva- 
sions of France, and burnt Paris. 

11. Charles, after a weak and inglorious reign, was 
succeeded by his son Louis the StanLmerer, who, in order 
to insure tranquillity to his estates, made numerous grants 
of lands, titles, and ofl&ces to his nobles and bishops. After 
a short reign, he left his kingdom to his two sons, Louis 
III. and Carloman. After the death of these princes, the 
emperor Charles the Fat, was elected to the vacant throne ; 



128 ■ FRANCE. 

but he governed with so much imbecility, that he was 
soon dethroned, and the imperial dignity was transferred 
to Germany. 

12. The nobility gave the crown to Eudes, till Charles 
the Simple should attain to the age of manhood ; and on 
the death of the former, the latter was raised to the throne, 
but he was deposed by Robert, the brother of Eudes ; and 
Robert was succeeded by his son-in-law Rodolph. During 
the reign of Charles the Simple, the JVormans, under 
Rollo, invaded and took JVeustria, and established them- 
selves in the country, which from them was named JVor- 
mandy. 

13. During the succeeding reigns of Louis IV. and Lo- 
thaire, Hugh the Great, the most powerful nobleman in 
France, obtained the chief direction of the government ; 
and in the reign of Louis V., he was succeeded in his 
authority, by his son Hugh Capet, who, on the death of 
Louis, placed himself upon the throne, and founded the 
third or Capetian race of French kings. 

SECTION II. 

Capetian Kings, from Hugh Capet to Philip VL of Valois. — 
From A. D. 987 to 1328. 

1. Hugh Capet, an able and politic sovereign, was suc- 
ceeded by his son Robert^ who was commanded by the 
pope to divorce his queen Bertha, because she was his 
cousin in the fourth degree. But he refused to comply, 
and was excommunicated. He was, in consequence, re- 
duced to the most abject condition, and abandoned by all 
his courtiers, as a person infected with the plague ; and 
was finally compelled to submit. 

2 The quiet of his son and successor Henry I. was dis- 
turbed by the hostile designs of his unnatural mother 
Constantia. During his reign a law was enacted, called 
the truce of God, prohibiting private combats between 
Thursday and Sunday. This was all that the ecclesiasti- 
cal and civil power united, could do to check the general 
rage for duelling. 

3. The reign of Philip I , the successor of Henry, was 
signalized by the first Crusade, preached by Peter the 
Hermit ; and by the invasion of France by William the 
Conqueror, of England. From this event may be dated 



FRANCE. 129 

the long continued rivalship and hostility between the 
French and English monarchies, which form a leading 
leafure in their history during several centuries. 

- 4. Louis VI., surnamed the Fat^ son of Philip, was an 
able and accomplished sovereign, and had a prosperous 
and useful reign. On his death-bed he addressed his son, 
who succeeded him, in the following words : " Remember 
that royalty is nothing more than a public charge, of which 
you must render a very strict account to him who makes 
kings, and who will judge them." 

5. Louis VII,, surnamed the Yotmg^ having been edu- 
cated in an abbey, was zealous for the religion of the age. 
The abbeys, at this period, produced some eminent men, 
among whom were Stiger, abbot of St. Denis, a great 
politician ; St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, famous for his 
eloquence and zeal ; and Melard, celebrated for his ge- 
nius and his learning in scholastic theology, and still more 
so for his connexion with Louisa. 

6. A civil war was excited on account of the refusal of 
Louis to assent to the choice of an archbishop, who was 
supported by the pope. The king entered the town of 
Vitry^ at the head of a large army, and caused the paro- 
chial church, in which the rebellious inhabitants had 
taken refuge, to be set on fire, and 1300 persons perished 
in the flames. The remorse which Louis felt for this act" 
of cruelty and sacrilege, gave rise to the second crusade^ 
which was preached by St. Bernard. 

7. Louis had married Eleanor ., heiress of the great duchy 
of Guienne, whom he divorced for her levities and vices ; 
and in six weeks, she married Henry Plantagenet, earl 
of Anjou, who became, the next year, Henry 11. of Eng- 
land, and who, by this marriage, acquired a great addition 
to his possessions in France. 

8. Philip II., surnamed Augustus, on account of his ex- 
ploits, surpassed, in systematic ambition and military enter- 
prise, all the sovereigns who had reigned in France since 
the time of Charlemagne. He signalized the commence- 
ment of his reign by a tyrannical act, in confiscating the 
property of the Jews in France, and banishing them from 
his dominions; he soon after joined Richard I. of England 
in the third crusade. 

9. John, who succeeded Richard in the throne of Eng- 
land, was suspected of having murdered his nephew 



130 FRANCE. 

Arthur ; and for this Philip summoned him, as his vassal, 
to be tried by a court of his peers ; but John, refusing to 
obey the summons, was declared guilty of felony, and his 
possessions confiscated. Philip invaded Normandy with 
his troops, and in a short time the king of England lost 
all his territories in France, with the exception of Gui- 
enne. 

10. Philip, who left his kingdom about twice as large 
as he found it, was succeeded by his son Louis VIII., who 
was surnamed the Lion^ on account of his valour, and 
whose short reign was chiefly distinguished by a barbarous 
crusade against the Albigenses. 

11. Louis IX., commonly called Saint Lonis, succeeded 
to the throne at the age of 12 years, and during his mi- 
nority, his mother, Blanche of Castile, filled the oflfice of 
regent with great firmness and courage. St. Louis was 
distinguished for his uprightness, benevolence, and piety, 
and with regard to the purity of his intentions, has, per- 
haps, scarcely been excelled by any sovereign that ever 
sat on a throne ; and his long reign was, in many respects, 
highly beneficial to his country. His principal weakness 
was superstition, which almost effaced the good effects of 
his virtues, and which prompted him to engage in two dis- 
astrous crusades, in the second of which he died near Tunis. 

12. St. Louis was succeeded by his son Philip III., sur- 
named the Hardy or Bold, because, when a prisoner with 
his father in Africa, he had the boldness to punish a 
sbldier who treated him with insolence ; or, as others say, 
because he extricated the remains of the army in Africa, 
and brought the crusade, which was undertaken by his 
father, to a favourable issue. During this reign an in- 
surrection took place in Sicily, which was occasioned by 
the tyranny of Charles of Anjou, uncle of Philip, who 
had recently become king of that island ; and 8,000 French- 
men were massacred, on the evening or vespers of Easter- 
day. 

13. Philip IV., surnamed the Fair, from the beauty of 
his countenance and the elegance of his person, was dis- 
tinguished for his ambition, dissimulation, perfidy, and 
cruelty, and was engaged in continual contests. By endeav- 
ouriiig to raise money from the clergy, as well as from his 
other subjects, he was involved in a quarrel with the am- 
bitious and haughty pope Boniface VIII. , who prohibited the. 



FRANCE. 131 

clerg'y from paying the assessment, laid IVance under an 
interdict, and issued a bull, declaring " that the Vicar of 
Christ is vested with full authority over the kings and 
kingdoms of the earth." 

14. The arrogant pontijQf died during the contest, and 
Philip managed to get Clement V., a Frenchmen devoted 
to his interests, elected his successor, and transferred the 
seat of the papacy from Rome to Avignon, where it con- 
tinued 70 years. This removal is styled by some Catholic 
writers, " The Babylonish captivity of the Holy See." — 
The Knights Templars, a religious and military order of 
great wealth, was abolished by Philip, and their property 
confiscated ; but a measure more creditable to him was 
his instituting parliaments. 

15. Philip was succeeded by his son Louis X., surnamed 
Hutin, that is, the Stubborn or Wrangler, whose short reign 
was signalized by the execution of his prime minister 
Marigni for pretended crimes, but, in reality, for his 
wealth. PhilipV., the Long, on the death of /oA» I., the in- 
fant son of Philip IV., succeeded to the throne. His reign is 
noted chiefly for a barbarous massacre and banishment of 
the Jews, who were accused of having poisoned the wells 
and fountains of water. His successor, Charles IV., the 
Fair, was the last of three brothers, whose reigns were 
all short, and who were always necessitous in respect to 
their finances, and little scrupulous with regard to their 
methods of im|«.'oving them. 

SECTION in. 

Branch of Valois : — Philip VL ; John IL ; Charles V. ; 
Charles VL ; Charles VIL ; Louis XL ; Charles VIIL— 
From A. D. 1328 to 1498. 

1. Philip the Fair left three sons, Louis Hutin, Philip 
the Long, and Charles the Fair, who were all successively 
kings of France, but who all died without leaving any 
male heirs ; and one daughter, Isabella, queen of England, 
and mother of Edward III. On the death of Charles the 
Fair, the male succession to the throne devolved on Philip 
VL of Valois, Charles's cousm-german ; and his title was 
universally acknowledged and supported by the French 
nation. But Edward III. of England was a nearer relative 
by the female side, and he as«ierted his claim in riffht of 



132 FRANCE. 

his mother. This claim gave rise to those contests for 
the French crown hy the kings of England, which are so 
famous in the history of both countries. Edward invaded 
France with an army of 30,000 men, in order to enforce 
his claim, gained the famous battle of Cressy, and besieged 
and took Calais. — In the midst of these misfortunes, Philip 
had the satisfaction of seeing Dauphiny annexed to the 
crown of France, by Hubert, the last count, on condition 
that the king's eldest son should bear the title of Dauphin. 

2. Philip was succeeded by his son John II., surnamed 
the Good, who was still more unfortunate than his father, 
being utterly defeated by the English under the Black 
Prince, at Poictiers, and carried a prisoner to London, 
where he died. 

3. During the captivity of John, the kingdom was 
thrown into the greatest disorder and confusion ; but soon 
after his son Charles V., surnamed the Wise, ascended the 
throne, the condition of the country began to improve. 
This distinguished sovereign resolved to make France a 
match for England, and, in order to effect this object, he 
deemed it necessary to restore tranquillity to the people, 
and inspire them with confidence in the government. He 
raised to the office of Constable of France the celebrated 
Du Guesclin, who was one of the greatest generals of the 
age, though he could neither read nor write. The French, 
under his command, drove into Spain the banditti that had 
ravaged the country, routed Charles, king of Navarre, and 
expelled the English from all their possessions in France, 
except Bourdeaux, Bayonne, and Calais. 

4. Charles was one of the best sovereigns that have 
sat on the throne of France ; a sagacious statesman, a 
beneficent lawgiver, a patron of literature, and an excel- 
lent man in his private character. His father left him a 
library of only 20 volumes ; to which he added 900, 
which rendered it one of the greatest libraries then in 
the world, and was an immense number for that period, 
when printing was not yet invented. Charles may be 
regarded as the founder of the magnificent royal library 
of which Paris is now proud. 

5. This eminent sovereign was succeeded by his son 
Charles VI., styled the Well-bcl'ved, a weak prinxe, subject 
to insanity, which, at last, reduced him almost to an ideot. 

. His life and his reign were alike miserable, and all the 



FRANCE. 153 

fruits of the wisdom of his father's government were soon 
lost. His queen, Isabella of Bavaria., was of most infamous 
character ; and the court was notorious for profligacy. 
The kingdom was governed by a succession of regents, 
whose misconduct occasioned seditions and rebellions. 

6. During this calamitous state of France, Henry V. of 
England invaded the country, gained the memorable vic- 
tory of v3^mooMri, and after obtaining other advantages, he 
concluded the treaty of Troyes, by which his succession to 
the throne, on the death of Charles, was acknowledged. 
Henry and Charles both died soon after this transaction. 

7. Charles VII., afterwards suroamed the Victorious., son 
of Charles VI., asserted his right to the crbwn ; and the in- 
fant Henry VI. of England, was also proclaimed king of 
France, under the regency of his uncle the duke ot Bedford. 
The English undertook the siege of Orleans, a place of the 
utmost importance, and pushed their design so successfully, 
that the affairs of Charles seemed almost desperate, when 
they were restored by one of the most marvellous trans- 
actions recorded in history. 

8. An obscure country girl overthrew the power of 
England. This was that wonderful heroine, Joan of Arc, 
otherwise called the Maid of Orleans, who appeared gt 
this juncture, pretending to be divinely commissioned to 
deliver her oppressed country, and promising to raise the 
siege of Orleans, and to conduct the king to Rheims to be 
crowned. — She had lived in the humble station of a ser- 
vant at an inn, and was now 27 years of age. 

9. Her mission was pronounced, by an assembly of di- 
vines, to be supernatural, and, at her own request, she 
was armed cap-a-pie, dressed like a man, mounted on 
horseback, entered Orleans at the head of the French 
troops, and actually compelled the English to raise the 
siege. Charles, in obedience to her exhortations, pro- 
ceeded to Rheims, which was then in possession of the 
English, entered it without difficulty, and was there crown- 
ed. Joan then declared that her mission was ended, and 
requested leave to retire ; but her presence was thought 
still necessary, and being detained, she afterwards fell into 
the hands of the English, who condemned her for witch- 
craft, and caused her to be burnt alive at Rouen. 

10. The French gained further victories, and the Eng- 
lish were finally expelled from all their possessions in the, 

12 



134 FRANCE. 

country, except Calais. Charles now directed his atten- 
tion to the improvement of the internal condition of his 
kingdom, and was a useful and popular sovereign. The 
latter part of his life was embittered by the undutiful and 
rebellious conduct of his son the Dauphin, by whom he 
was in such fear of being poisoned, that he is said to have 
died through want of sustenance. 

11. Louis XL was an odious compound of dissimulation, 
profligacy, cruelty, and superstition : he is sometimes 
styled the Tiberius of France ; yet he obtained from the 
pope the title of Most Christian, a title still annexed to 
the name of the French kings. He possessed, however, 
considerable talents, great application to business, and affa- 
bility to his inferiors ; and he was the author of many wise 
laws and excellent regulations for the encouragement of 
commerce, and for promoting the administration of justice. 

12. It was his policy to humble the nobles, who formed 
a confederacy against him, and engaged in a contest to 
preserve their authority, entitled " the war of the public 
good." The barbarity of the public executions during 
his reign, is almost incredible : his own life was rendered 
miserable, especially towards its close, by the knowled«'e 
of his being generally hated, and by the torments and 
terrors of a guilty conscience. 

13. C/^ar-Zes VIII , the son of Louis, succeeded to the 
throne, at the age of 13 years. He was mild in his dis- 
position and courteous in his manners, and received the 
Surname of the Affable or Civil. His father had acquired 
a claim to the kingdom of Naples, and on coming of age, 
he engaged in an expedition for the conquest of that 
country, which was easily accomplished ; but the posses- 
sion of it was soon lost. 

SECTION IV. 

Louis XII. ; Francis I. ; Henry 11. ; Francis II. ; Charles 
IX. ; Henry III— From A. D. 1498 to 1589. 

1. Charles, who was the last of the direct line of the 
house of Valois, was succeeded by Louis XII. Duke of 
Orleans, great-grandson of Charles V". He was a benefi- 
cent and popular sovereign. Being frugal in his poli- 
cy, he diminished the taxes and burdens of his subjects ? 



FRANCE. 135 

and gained the title of "The Father of his People." 
He retained the ministers of the late king in office, even 
those who had treated him ill before he came to the 
throne, "It is unworthy of the king of France," said 
he, " to punish the injuries done to the duke of Orleans." 

2. He prosecuted his claim to Naples, but though, by 
the aid of his generals, the celebrated Chevalier Bayard 
and Gaston de Foix, he obtained some advantages, he vi^as 
ultimately unsuccessful, and became the dupe of his al- 
lies, Ferdinand of Spain, the infamous pope Alexander VI., 
and his more infamous son Ccesar Borgia. The king of 
Spain, by treachery, got possession of the whole of Na- 
ples ; and Milan and Genoa, which had been taken by 
Louis, soon after revolted from him. In the midst of 
preparations to recover these losses, Louis died suddenly, 
and the exclamation of " The good king is dead," was 
heard on every side. 

3. Francis /., Duke of Jlngouleme^ and nephew of Louis 
XII., succeeded to the throne at the age of 21 years. He 
was of a romantic turn, fond of war, and eager for glory: 
he departed from the frugal maxims of his predecessor; 
and soon distinguished himself by the conquest of the 
Milanese. 

4. In 1519, on the death of Maximilian^ emperor of 
Germany, Francis and Charles V. (who was then king of 
S min), became rival candidates for the imperial crown. 
Francis, speaking with Charles respecting the object of 
their competition, said, with his natural vivacity and frank- 
ness; " We are suitors to the same mistress; the more 
fortunate will win her, but the other must remain con- 
tented " 

5. Charles was the successful candidate ; and Francis, 
whose heart was too much set upon the prize to lose it 
with quiet feelings, retired disappointed, and thirsting 
for revenge. The two rivals were now declared ene- 
mies, and their mutual claims on each other's dominions 
were the subject of perpetual hostility, during nearly the 
whole of their long reigns. 

6. The reign of Charles V. forms a distinguished period 
in history, — memorable not only for the wars and contests 
among the states of Europe ; but still more for the estab- 
lishment of the Reformation, the advancement of literature, 



I3& FRANCfi. 

(he extension of commerce, and the impulse g-iren to the 
progress of society. Charles was the greatest sovereign 
of the age, and superior to his rival Francis both in poli- 
cy and power. Other distinguished sovereigns of the 
same age, were Hennj VIII. of England, who was courted 
by both of the rival monarchs, and, in some degree, in- 
volved in their wars ; Solyman the Magnificent, sultan of 
Turkey, a formidable enemy of Charles ; Gustavits Vasa^ 
of Sweden ; and Pope Leo X. 

7. In the contest between the two rivals, the first 
hostile attack was made by Francis on the kingdom of 
Navarre, which was won and lost in the space of a few 
months. The emperor attacked Picardy, and his troops, 
at the same time, drove the French out of the Milanese. 
Francis quarrelled with his best general, the constable of 
Bourbon, who, in revenge, deserted to the emperor, and 
was by him invested with the chief command of his armies. 
The French king marched into Italy with great success, 
and laid siege to Pavia ; but was here defeated by Bour- 
bon, and taken prisoner. 

8. Francis was detained some time at Madrid by Charles, 
who compelled him to comply with disadvantage ons terms 
of peace. After being set at liberty, and having passed 
the boundaries between Spain and France, he mounted 
his horse, and waving his hand over his head, exultingly 
exclaimed, several times, " I am yet a king." Charles 
had not treated him with generosity, having extorted from 
him more promises than a king, restored to freedom, would 
be likely to perform, and more than his subjects would 
assent to. The violations of this treaty occasioned, be- 
tween the two sovereigns, insulting challenges, and new 
wars. 

9. After the war had been prosecuted with various suc- 
cess, a truce was at length agreed upon, and a circumstance 
took place, which brought the rival monarchs, who had 
been engaged 20 years in hostilities with each other, to a 
personal interview. On meeting, they vied with each 
other in expressions of respect and friendship. The next 
year Charles obtained permission of Francis to pass through 
France on his way to the Netherlands, and was entertain- 
ed, during a stay of six days in Paris, with great magnifi- 
cence. 

10. Charles having afterwards refused to give up Mila» 



FRANCE. 137 

to Francis, as he had promised, the war was again re- 
newed with redoubled animosity; but its tinal issue, 
as had usually been the case, was unfavourable to the 
designs of the king of France, who died immediately after 
the restoration of peace. 

11. Thousrh Francis was engaged in war during the 
\whole of his reign, and was unsuccessful in his projects, 
yet he left his kingdom in a flourishing condition. He 
was a patron of literature and the arts, which made great 
progress in France during his reign ; and at this period, 
the French court acquired that external polish and refine- 
ment, for which it has been since distinguished. 

12. Francis possessed, in a high degree, those qualities 
wh'ch captivate the multitude ; impetuous courage, great 
decision and activity of mind, a frank disposition, and a 
generous heart : and there was a polish about his manners, 
an amiableness about his more common actions and his 
mode of performing them, and a delicacy and strictness of 
honour about his whole conduct, which characterize a 
finished gentleman. Yet he was far from being actuated 
by a sense of justice and good faith in his public charac- 
ter ; nor were his private morals free from reproach. 
He formed his plans with too little deliberation, and was 
wanting in perseverance. It was his misfortune to contend 
with a rival, who was more than a match for him in policy 
and resources. 

13. Henry II., the son and successor of Francis, was 
brave, affable, and polite, in some respects resembling 
his father, yet possessing far less talent, and easily gov- 
erned by iavourites. His reign, which was 13 years in 
duration, was spent in war chietly with Charles V., and 
his son Philip II. of Spain. Charles sustained a great loss 
at the siege of J\hiz ; but Philip obtained over Henry the 
famous victory oi St. Quentin., in commemoration of which 
he built the palace of the Escurial, 

14. This war, the success of which had not been much 
to the satisfaction of either party, was terminated by the 
treaty of Chateau Cambresis The reign of Henry was 
signalized by the recovery of Calais from the English, 
and by the increase of those persecutions of the Calvinists 
or Protestants, often also culled Huguenots, which had been 
begun in the reign of his father, and which gave rise to 

12* 



J3S FRAJNCE. 

the civil WEI'S which distratced France during the three 
succeeding reigns. 

15. The successor of Henry II. was his son Francis IL, 
the husband of Mary, queen of Scots, who died after a 
reign of one year, and was succeeded by his brother 
Charles IX., then a boy only ten years old, who had for his* 
guardian, his mother, Catharine de Medicis, an ambitious 
and unprincipled woman. 

16. At this time the Protestant religion had spread ex- 
tensively in France, and was professed by some men of 
great influence at court, among whom were the Prince of 
Conde and Admiral Goligny, 

17. At the head of the Catholics was the ambitious 
family of the Guises, consisting of five brothers, the most 
prominent of whom were the Duke of Guise and the Cardi- 
nal of Lorraine, who were leading men in the governments 
To the intolerance and cruelty of this family, the Protest- 
ants attributed all their calamities ; and the conspiracy of 
Amboise was formed for the destruction of the Catholic 
leaders. It was, however, discovered, and about 1,200 
conspirators were massacred and executed. 

18. After the famous conference held at Poissy, for dis- 
cussing the points in dispute between the Catholics and 
Protestants, an edict was published, granting liberty ta 
the latter to exercise their worship without the walls of 
towns. This edict was soon violated ; both parties flew 
to arms, and commenced the sanguinary civil war, which, 
for a long time, harassed the kingdom. 

19. The Catholics, under the command of Gtiise and 
Montmorency, defeated the Protestants commanded by 
Conde and Coligny, in several engagements ; but the latter 
were still powerful, and obtained conditions of peace, 
which granted them toleration. 

20. The king and his court now had recourse to strata- 
gem and treachery. The Protestants were treated with 
the greatest marks of favour, and on the occasion of the 
marriage of the king of Navarre with the sister of Charles, 
they were allured to court: every thing being arranged, 
an St. BariholomevcPs day,, a horrid massacre was com- 
menced in Paris and throughout France, when, according 
to Sully, as many as 60,000 were murdered ; and amon^ 
the sufferers was the venerable Coligny. 



FRANCE. 139 

21. Charles, in giving directions for the massacre of his 
Protestant subjects, added, ' Take care that none escape 
to reproach me." When the news of this horrible trans- 
action was heard at Rome, solemn thanks were given for 
"the triumph of the church militant!" Charles, who 
was a monster of cruelty, profligacy, and dissimulaton, 
died soon after this massacre, and was succeeded by his 
brother Henry 111., who was weak, fickle, and vicious. — 
Notwithstanding the distractions of this unhappy reign, 
many wise laws were enacted throygh the influence of 
the celebrated chancellor De VHospital. 

22. The massacre of St. Bartholomew served rather to 
strengthen than weaken the Protestants, who were now a 
powerful party, and had at their head the Prince of Conde 
and the Kmg of JVavarre. Henrj' found it expedient to 
grant them some privileges ; this measure incensed the 
Catholics, who, with the duke of Guise at their head, 
formed the celebrated League for the purpose of extirpat- 
ing the Calvinists : it had also another and more secret ob- 
ject, that of usurping all the powers of government. 

23. The king was persuaded to unite himself with this 
league, and took the field against the Protestants. But 
he soon found himself d'-prived of a great part of his au- 
thority by the duke of Guise ; and after repeated contests, 
Henry caused the duke, and his brother the cardinal of 
Lorraine, to be put to death by the hand of assassins. 
This act excited an insurrection throughout France, and 
subjected the king to the abhorrence of his subjects ; and 
he was soon fifter assassinated himself b}' James Clement, 
a Dominican friar. 

SECTION V. 

Henry IF.; Louis XHL ; Lout's XIV.—Froin A. D. 158& 
io 1715. 

1. As Henry III. died without children, and the house 
of Valois was extinct, the throne parsed to ihe house of 
Bourbon, in the person of Henry III., king of Navarre, who 
now became Henry IV. of France, afterwards surnamed 
the Great. His mother had avowed herself the protector 
of the Reformed religion, in which he had been educated. 
He was now in his 35th year ; an able general, possessed 
of distinguished talents and popular qualities, for the ex- 



140 FRANCE. 

ercise of all which he soon found ample occasion, as his 
being a Protestant prejudiced the greater part of his peo- 
ple against him. 

2. The army of the League was now commanded by 
the duke of Mayexne, brother of the late duke of Guise, 
who proclaimt-d his uncle, the cardinal of Bourbon, king, 
by the title of Charles X. Henry defeated this army in 
the famous battle of Ivry. 

3. Meeting afterwards with various obstacles, he was 
induced, by views of policy, in order to conciliate the 
majority of his subjects, to renounce Protestantism, and 
declare himself a Catholic. He was then crowned at 
Chartres, and obtained nbsolution from the pope. To his 
old friends, the Calvinists, who had been his defenders, 
and by whose aid he ascended the throne, he granted the 
celebrated Edict of JVanles, by which he confirmed all 
their rights and privileges, giving tnem free admission to 
all Oiffices of honour and profit. 

4. After Henry was quietly seated on the throne, he 
turned his attention to the improvement of the internal 
condition of his kingdom ; ar^d in all his patriotic designs, 
he found an able assistant in his great minister the Duke 
of Sully. The civil war, of nearly thirty years' duration, 
had produced the most calamitous effects : the crown was 
loaded with debt ; the country uncultivated ; the people 
poor and miserable : but by means of the wise and pru- 
dent measures which were adopted, the face of things was 
soon happily changed ; and, during this reign, all the state 
debts were discharged, 

5. Henry, with the aid of Sully, formed a romantic 
scheme, styled the grand design, tor dividing Europe into 
15 states, so arranged as to avoid the grounds of war, and 
secure perpetual peeice. With regard to his real motive, 
there have been different opinions ; but the object, what- 
ever it might be, was to be obtained by force of arms. 
Having made great preparations for war, just before he 
was to set out to put himself at the head of his army, he 
was assassinated by Ravaillac, a bigoted Catholic, in the 
2lst year of his reign, and the 58th of his age. 

6. Henry was the most popular sovereign that ever sat 
on the throne of France. His person and manners were 
prepossessing, at once inspiring affection and commanding 
respect : his talents were great both as a general and a 



FRAN'CE. 141 

aitatesman ; but his master virtue was his love for his 
people. His soldiers and his subjects regarded him with 
the affection of children. When asked what the revenue 
of France amounted to, he replied, " To what I please ; 
for having the hearts of my people, they will give me 
whatever 1 ask : if God sees proper to spare my life, I 
will take care that France shall be in such a condition, 
that every peasant in it shall be able to have a fowl ia 
his pot." 

7. Notwithstanding his many noble qualities as a sove- 
reign and a man, yet, as a husband, he is little to be 
commended ; his dissoluteness rendered his domestic life 
unhappy, and the manners of his court were rendered 
profligate by the example of his libertine conduct. Na 
less than 4,000 French gentlemen are said to have been 
killed in duels, chiefly arising out of amorous quarrels,, 
during the first 18 years of his reign. 

8. Henry was succeeded by his son Louis XIII., then a 
boy in his 9th year. Mary de Medicis, the mother of the 
young king, was appointed regent : she disgusted the no- 
bility by her partiality for Italian favourites, and the king- 
dom soon relapsed into the most fatal disorders. But the 
abilities of Cardinal Richelev^ who, after the king became 
of age, was made prime minister, soon effected a great 
change. It was his policy to promote rather the aggran- 
dizement of the kingdom, than the true interests and hap- 
piness of the people. His three leading obiects were, to 
subdue the turbulent spirit of the French nobility, to hum- 
ble the power of the Protestants, and to curb th§ encroach-!- 
ments of the house of Austria. 

9. The Protestants, alienated by persecution, attempted 
to throw off their allegiance, and establish an independent 
state, of which Rochelle was to be the capital. Richelieu 
laid siege to this city, which, after maintaining a most 
obstinate resistance for a year, during which 15,000 
persons perished, it was forced to surrender. By this 
event the civil war was ended, and the Protestant power 
in France finally crushed. 

10. The cardinal entered deeply into foreign politics, 
influenced all the courts of Europe, and was continually 
engaged in vast projects for humbling his enemies and 
extending his influence abroad, or in checking the designs 



142 FRANCE. 

which were formed against his power and his life at home, 
A rebellion was excited by the duke of Orleans, the king's 
brother, supported by the duke of Montmorency ; but their 
army was defeated, and Montmorency executed for trea- 
son. Amidst all this turbulence and intrigue, the haughty 
and ambitious cardinal, extended the glory of the French 
name to dstant regions, commanded the respect of all the 
European powers, patronized literature and science, an(t 
instituted the French Academy. 

11. Louis was so completely under the influence of 
Richelieu, that his character is little seen. He acquired 
the epithet of Just ; but if he were entitled to it, the 
injustice and cruelty of some of the public measures of his 
reign, must be imputed entirely to his minister. 

12. Louis XIV. (sometimes surnaroed the Great') suc- 
ceeded to the throne in the 6th year of his age, under 
the regency of his mother, Jlnne of Aistria, who made 
choice of Cardinal Mazarine for her minister. Mazarine 
was an artful Italian, whose excessive avarice rendered 
him odious to the people ; but one of his greatest faults 
was his neglect of the education of the young king, who 
was instructed only in dancing, fencina:, and other super- 
ficial accomplishments. The administration of Mazarine 
was signalized by the defeat of the Spaniards, and by in- 
testine commotions, particularly a civil war, called the 
Fronde^ fomented by C'lrdinal de Retz. 

13. On the death of Mazarine, Louis, being now 22 
years of age, took upon himself the entire command and 
direction qf the affair* of government, and entered on a 
vigorous and splend d career. The love of glory was his 
ruling passion, and ihis he pursued not only by the terror 
of his arms anH the splenilour of his conquests, but also 
by his patronage of literature, science, and (he arts; by 
his able administration of internal affairs; and by the ex- 
tension and improvement of all kinds of public works. 
The capital was embellished, the splendid palace of 
Versailles built, commr'rce and manufactures encouraged, 
the canal of Laaguedoc, and other useful works, con- 
structed. 

1 4. The finances were admirably regulated by Colbert, 
one of the ablest statesmen of modern times ; in the form- 
er part of his reign, his armies were commanded by 



FRANCE, 143 

Conde and Turenne, two of the greatest generals of the 
age ; and the genius of the famous Vauhan was employed 
in fortifying his towns. 

15. For a long time he was every where successful: he 
conquered Franche Cotnptc., and annexed it to France ; 
made great conquests in the JVetherlands ; overran Alsace ; 
and twice laid waste the Palatinate w^th fire and sword : 
such was the barbarous devastation that, in the first in- 
stance, from the top of the castle of Manheim 27 cities 
and towns of the Palatinate were seen^ at the same time, 
in flames : in the second instance, more than 40 towns and 
a vast number of villages were burnt, and the inhabitants 
reduced to the greatest extremities by hunger and cold. 

16- In 1673, Turenne was killed by a cannon ball; 
Conde soon after retired; and Colbert died. No men of 
equaJ talents arose to supply their places. The conquests 
of Louis had been made at such an enormous expense, 
that his dominions were, in a measure, exhausted, and his 
means of defence weakened. He had. by his unbounded 
ambition, by the violence and injustice of his projects, 
and the alarming increase of his power, gradually raised 
up, among the states of Europe, a formidable opposition 
to his authority, which gave rise to long and bloody 
wars. 

17. By the League of Augsburg^ yvhic^ was organized in 
1686, Holland, Spain, Sweden, the emperor, and several 
of the princes of Germany, were united against him. In 
1701, the alliance against France by England, Germany, 
and Holland was formed. A series of reverses marked 
the latter part of his long reign. His armies |^ad now to 
contend against the geniiis of the Duke of Murlboroitgh and 
Prince Eugene^ who gained over them the celebrated battles 
of Blenheim^ Ramillies, Oudenarde^ and Mulplaquet ; and at 
the peace of Utrecht, he lost nearly all that he had gained. 

18. One of the most unjust as well as im; olitic measures 
of Louis, was the revocation of the Edict of Nants. grant- 
ed by Henry IV., for the toleration of the Protestants. 
By this barbarous act, all the Reformed churches were 
destroyed, their ministers banished, and every individual 
was outlawed, or compelled to renounce his religion. 
They were hunted like wild beasts, and great numbers 
were put to death. By this measure, the kingdom lost 
from 500,000 to 800,000 of her most useful and industrioufs 



144 PRANCE. 

citizens, who were driven into exile, and carried the arts 
and manufactures of France, in which the Protestants 
greatly excelled, to other countries. 

19. Louis died in the 73d year of his reign, and the 
78th of his age. His reign was longer and more splen- 
did than that of any other of the French kings. " The 
greater part of his reign," says Anquetil, " may be con- 
sidered as a spectacle with grand machinery, calculated 
to excite astonishment. Towards the end we behold 
nothing but the wrecks of that theatrical majesty, and the 
illusion vanishes." 

20 Louis was one of the handsomest men in his king- 
dom, and excelled in all the polite accomplishments. In 
his appearance and manners there was an extraordinary 
degree of dignity and majesty, which were softened and 
tempered by affability and polHeness ; so that if he was 
not the greatest king, he was at least, as Bolingbroke 
expresses it, -'the best actor of majesty that ever filled a 
throne." 

21. He possessed great vigour of mind, and good talents, 
which were< however, but little improved by education. 
His morals were dissolute, and his ambition and love of 
glory were insatiable, and led him to violate the duties of 
justice and humanity, and to sacrifice the real interests of 
his people. He patronizt^d every species of merit, and 
his reign, which is regarded as the Jl-igustan age of French 
literature, was less illustrious for military achievements, 
than for the splendour of the arts and sciences. 

• SECTION VI. 

Louis XV.; Louis XVL: — The Revolution. — From A. D. 
1715 to 1793. 

1. Louis XV., great-grandson of the late king, succeeded 
to the throne in his 6th year ; and the duke of Orleans 
was appointed regent. This regency is remarkable chiefly 
for the famous Mississippi scheme of Larw, who formed a 
project to pay off the national debt, by the introduction of 
a paper currency; — a scheme which was ruinous to the 
fortunes of thousands. 

2. Louis, soon after he came of age, chose for his minis- 
ter the mild and amiable cardinal Fleury, who was then 73 
years of age, and retained his vigour till aear 90. By 



FRANCE. 145 

his pacific councils, the tranquillity of France, and even 
of the rest of Europe, was continued, with little interrup- 
tion, for nearly 20 years. 

3. After the death of Fleury, France was involved in 
the war of the Austrian succession, which was occasioned 
by the death of the emperor Charles VI There were 
two claimants to the imperial throne, Maria Theresa, the 
late emperor's eldest daughter, who was married to Fran- 
cis of Lorraine, grand. duke of Tuscany ; and Charles, the 
elector of Bavaria. The former was supported by Eng- 
land ; the latter by France and Prussia. In this war the 
French were defeated by the allies, under George II. of 
England, atDettingen • but under marshal Saxe, they gain- 
ed the battle of Fontenoy. Hostilities were terminated 
by the peace of Jlix-la-Ckapelle, by which the claim of 
Maria Theresa was acknowledged. 

4. In 1755, a war broke out between France and Eng- 
land Te&^ecim^ihe'iv American possessions, which was termi- 
nated by the peace of Paris, when Canada and the terri- 
tories in North America, were ceded by France to Great 
Britain. The remainder of this reign was chieily occupied 
with the conquest of Corsica, and contests between the 
king and his parliaments. 

5. Louis died after a reign of 59 years, and a life of 65. 
He possessed nothing as a king or a man, that entitled him 
to the gratitude or aifection of his people. In the early 
part of his reign, his subjects conferred upon him the title 
of Well-beloved ; but a long course of rapacity, profusion, 
and tyranny, as a monarch, and of the most profligate de- 
baucheries in private life, induced them to retract the 
appellation. His reign resembled that of Charles II. of 
England, in its pernicious influence on the interests of 
religion, morality, and liberty. His own odious character; 
his attempts to crush the spirit of freedom; the prodigali- 
ty of his government; the extreme profligacy of his 
court, — all conspired to loosen the bonds between the 
sovereign and his subjects ; and the general uneasiness 
and the murmurs of the people indicated approaching 
storms. 

6. Louis XVI. succeeded his grandfather, at the age of 
20 years. His post was one of great diffi ulty and danger, 
from the embarrassment of the finances, on account of the 

13 



146 FRANCE. 

long course of prodigality, and from the feelings of the 
people, now more than ever alive to their rights, and 
irritated by the tyrannical conduct of the late sovereign. 

7. One of the first measures of the new king was to 
remove from office those who, by their misconduct, had 
become unpopular, and had contributed to the distresses 
of the kingdom, and to replace them by men of talents and 
integrity. Turgot was placed at the head of the finances ; 
and on his resignation, the station was filled by the cele- 
brated JVecker of Geneva, who, becoming unpopular, was 
dismissed, and succeeded by Calonne. 

8. War between Great Britain and the American Colon- 
ies having broken out, many Frenchmen, among whom 
were the Marquis de Lafayette, and other officers and 
engineers, crossed the Atlantic to aid the Americans; 
and France soon after declared war against England. On 
the return of peace, in 1783, the difficulties increased; 
the enormous public expenses had brought the finances 
into the most embarrassed condition, and the government 
was reduced to a stand for want of supplies. 

9. Various causes had been, for some time, at work to 
produce a revolution in France, which was now about to 
burst forth, and convulse not only that country, but the 

v.whole civilized world. Some of the principal of these 
causes, were the progress of philosophy, the diffusion of 
information, and the freedom of thinking on subjects of 
government and religion ; the notions and feelings in fa- 
vour of liberty excited by the American revolution, and 
disseminated by the return of the French officers and army 
from the United States; the prevalence of infidelity among 
the literary classes ; the despotism of the government, and 
the abuses both of the ecclesiastical and political establish- 
ments ; the odious privileges of the nobility and clergy, 
especially their exemption from taxes ; the desire of the 
nobility to regain those privileges of which they had been 
stripped by the crown ; and the discontent of the mass of 
the people on account of their oppressed condition, and of 
the evils which they suffered from the nobility. All 
these circumstances had an influence in preparing the 
way for this great event; yet the more immediate cause 
of the revolution was the derangement of the finances. 

10. All plans for restoring the finances to order having 
proved ineffectual, Louis, by the advice of Calonne, con- 



FRANCE 147 

voked an assembly of the JVotables, a body consisting of 
persons selected by the king, chiefly from the higher 
orders of the state. To this assembly it was proposed to 
levy a land-tax, proportioned to property, without any 
exception in favour of the nobility or clergy ; but they 
refused to sanction the measure, and were dissolved. Ca- 
lonne then resigned his office, and was succeeded by Bi- 
enne, archbishop of Thoulouse. Recourse was next had 
to the parliament ; and afterwards to the parliament in 
conjunction with the Notables ; but all without success. 

11. JVecker was then recalled to power; and by his ad- 
vice, Louis convoked the States-General, a body which 
had not been assembled since 1614, and which was com- 
posed of the three orders, nobility, clergy, and the third 
estate, or commons. It was stipulated, by the advice of 
Necker, that the deputies of the commons should equal, 
in number, those of the other two orders united. The 
king addressed this body in a conciliatory speech, no 
longer using the language of a sovereign who expected 
implicit obedience to his will. 

12. But difficulties soon arose between the three branch- 
es of the assembly ; and at last the commons, together 
with such of the nobles and clergy as were disposed to 
unite with them, on the motion of the Mb'e Sieyes, declared 
themselves the representatives of the people, and formed 
the National Assembly^ a body " one and indivisable." 
Louis himself consented to sanction this union. But this 
Assembly, which was, in a great degree, under the influ- 
ence of the Duke of Orleans and Mirabeau, wrested from 
the king nearly all his authority, and rejected all his con- 
ciliatory measures. 

13. The king again dismissed Necker from office. This 
unpopular measure was the signal for insurrection in Paris, 
which was soon in a state of violent commotion. T'he 
Bastilc, a huge state prison, was demolished by the popu- 
lace ; other excesses were committed in the city and 
elsewhere, by the furious rabble, and by mobs of frantic 
women of the vilest character. The army united with 
the people ; the nobles emigrated for safety, and for foreign 
aid ; the king, queen, and royal family were forced from 
Versailles to the capital by the ungovernable mob ; but 
were protected from violence by the powerful influence and 
efforts of Lafayette^ who commanded the national guardt 



148 FRANCE. 

In consequence of this removal, the Assembly adjourned 
its sitJiDgs to Paris. Some of its most important measures, 
at this period, were the abolition of the privileges of the 
nobles and clergy, a new division of France into 83 de- 
partments, the contii^cation of the church lands, and the 
suppres«ion of the monasteries. 

14. Louis and his family, finding their situation insup- 
portable, escaped from Paris, but were stopped on the 
frontiers of the kingdom, and brought back. A new con- 
stitution was framed by the Assembly, and accepted by the 
king, which established the equality of all ranks. Various 
political clubs or societies were formed in Paris, of which 
the Jacobin club^ so called from the place of meeting, was 
the most prominent, and insensibly absorbed all the rest ; 
and, for a time, this factious association governed the 
capital, and controlled the Assembly. 

15. in 1792, a new body, called the JVational Conven- 
tion, was organized, which abolished the regal govern- 
ment, declared France a republic, and arraigned the king 
to their bar, to answer to numerous charges. He was 
condemned by a small majority, and suffered by the axe 
of the guillotine, on the 21st of January, 1793. Louis, 
who had before, on important occasions, manilested weak- 
ness and timidity, met his fate with a degree of composure, 
dignity, and firmness, that surprised and awed even his 
enemies. He was of a benevolent disposition, not devoid 
of talents and accomplishments, but ill fitted for the diffi- 
cult and stormy times in which his lot was cast. 

SECTION VII. 

The Revolution continued ; Robespierre : Bonaparte ; Euro- 
pean War : — Louis XVIII. : Charles X. 

1. The executive power was now lodged in the famous 
Committee of Public Safety; and the revolutionary tribunal 
was erected under Robespierre and his associates, whose 
bloody domination is styled, " The reign of terror^ _ Two 
factions arose in the National Convention, the Mountain par- 
ty, so called from their occupying the most elevated seats in 
the hall of the Convention; and the Girondists, Avho were 
so named because some of their leaders were from the 
department of the Gironde. The leaders of the former 
were Robespierre, Danton. and Marat, men almost unparal- 



FRANCE. 149 

leled ia depravity and cruelty : of the latter, the leaders 
were B)-issot and Condorcet. 

2. The Mountain party, having- gained the ascendancy 
over their opponents, were instrumental in causing the 
most horrid massacres. They condemned and executed 
the Qween Antoinette, and guillotined Brissot and 20 others 
of the Girondists, That monster of vice, the Duke of 
Orleans, suffered the same fate from the hands of the very 
party that he had materially contributed to bring forward 
to serve his own purposes. 

3. The Convention abandoned themselves to the most 
extravagant excesses : on the motion of Gobet, Archbishop 
of Paris, they suppressed the Christian religion ; passed a 
decree that the only French deities hereafter should be 
Liberty, Equality, and Reason ; established a republican 
calendar ; abolished the Sabbath, and instead of it, made 
every 10th day a day of rest. The churches were plun- 
dered of their gold and silver; and even their bells were 
melted''and cast into cannon. 

4. The Convention was divided anew into two most vio- 
lent parties ; Robespierre at the head of one, and Danton 
of the other. Robespierre triumphed, and all his most 
active opponents were guillotined; but his own fate soon 
followed, being condemned and executed on a charge of 
tyranny, in July, 1794. The Jacobins were soon after 
suppressed by the Convention ; and the next year the 
executive power was vested in Five Directors, 

5. From 1791 to 1799, four different constitutions were/ 
formed. By the 4th, adopted in 1799, the executive power 
was vested in three Consuls, of whom Bonaparte was 
elected to be first, Cambaceres the second, and Le Brun, 
the third. 

6. Before the execution of the king, many of the clergy 
and nobility, together with multitudes of persons, attached, 
to the ancient order of things, had fled from France, through 
fear of personal danger, and to solicit foreign aid. A 
powerful body was thus collected on the frontiers, who 
were assisted by the surrounding nations, especially Prussia 
and Austria, in their efforts to re-establish royalty and 
tranquillity. This was the origin of the firU of that 
series of Coalitions against France, into which nearly all 
the powers of Europe successively entered. On the death 

13* 



150 FRANCE, 

of the king, Great Britain and Holland, and soon afterwards, 
Russia and Spain also, declared war against France. 

7. The invading army was commanded by the Duke of 
Bninswkk, who injudiciously published a threatening mani- 
festo, the effect of which was to irritate the revolution- 
ists into greater violences, to hasten the execution of 
the king, and to unite all parties in the defence of the 
country. 

8. The first campaign was unfortunate for France. But 
in the following year, the losses were retrieved by the 
conquest of the Netherlands and Holland. The republic, 
having made peace with several of the German princes, 
turned her views towards Italy ; and the command of the 
army was (1796) given to Napoleon Bonaparte^ then a 
young man in the 27th year of his age, who had previously 
distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon. By a series 
of rapid victories, this extraordinary man retrieved the 
affairs of France, and obliged the Austrians to sign, in 
1797, the treaty of Campo Formio, by which the con- 
quests of the French in the Netherlands, were confirmed, 
and the Milanese ceded to the new Cisalpine Republic ; 
whilst the Venetian territories were given up to Austria. 

9. The Second Coalition was formed after the defeat of 
the French fleet, in 1798, by that of the English, under 
Nelson., in the bay of Abovkir, off the mouth of the Nile. 
Before this event, Bonaparte had invaded Egypt, defeated 
the Mamelukes in the battle of the Pyramids, and taken 
possession of Cairo and all the Delta. 

10. In the campaign of 1799, the French were very 
unfortunate ; the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, 
and the Russians, under Sum-arrom:, gained a number of 
important victories in the north of Italy, in Switzerland, 
and in Germany : by their united forces, the very frontiers 
of France were threatened ; whilst the ill conduct of the 
Directory at home, broug;ht the country to the brink of 
ruin. At this crisis, Bonaparte, who had proceeded from 
Egypt to Syria, and taken Jaffa, returned to Paris, and, by 
the aid of Fouche, Cambaceres, and Talleyrand, together 
with a military force, he abolished the Directory, framed 
a new constitution, and caused himself to be elected First 
Consul. 

11. From this moment the affairs of the republic took 
a new turn. By his activity and energy, Bonaparte over- 



FRANCE. 151 

came the intrigues of all his rivals ; introduced a new 
order of things in the different departments of state; sup- 
pressed the various factions, that had long raged in the 
empire ; and, by the reformation of many abuses, restored 
order and tranquillity to the government. 

12. After this he put himself at the head of the army; 
and having effected the celebrated passage of the Alps^ 
defeated the Austrians under Melas^ in the memorable 
battle of Marengo, which decided the fate of Italy, 'i'his 
victory, together with the defeat of the Austrians at Ho- 
henlinden^ by the French, under Morean^ and other suc- 
cesses, led the way to the peace oi Amiens (1802): thus 
Europe, for the first time since the late revolution, en- 
joyed the blessings of universal peace. 

13. The limits of France were now greatly enlarged, 
and Bonaparte, as First Consul, exercised an absolute sway 
over almost all the continent of Europe west of the Adri- 
atic and the Rhine. Soon after the establishment of peace, 
he restored the Catholic religion, concluded a concordat 
or convention with the pope, granted toleration to all re- 
ligions, and instituted the Legion of Honour. 

14. He was next elected First Consul for life, with su- 
preme power ; but a conspiracy was now formed agninst 
him, in which Moreau., Pichegru^ Georges, and other emi- 
nent men were accused of participating. Moreau was 
banished to America; Fichegru was strangled; Georges 
and 11 others were guillotined; and the Duke d^Enghien 
was shot without trial. — In 1804, Bonaparte was proclaim- 
ed Emperor of France, and was crowned by the pope • the 
next year, he assumed also the title oi King of Italy. 

15. The peace of Amiens was of short duration. la 
1803, the war was renewed between France and England ; 
Bonaparte seized Hanover, and threatened to invade the 
British isles ; and in 1S05, the Third C'oa/tiun was formed 
by England, Austria. Russia, Sweden, and afterwards Prus- 
sia. The emperor immediately put himself at the head 
of the French army, carried his rapid and victorious arms 
to Uhn, where he captured the Austrian army of 33,000 
men under M.ck; and, in the memorat le battle oi' A:>ster- 
lilz, defeated the united forces of Russia and Austiia ; at 
which battle the three emperors were present. This great 
victory terminated the campaign, and brought about the 
peace of Presburg, by which Austria ceded to the French 



152 FRANCE. 

the Venetian territories, and submitted to other humiliat- 
ing conditions, 

16. A few weeks before the battle of Austerlitz, the 
English fleet, under Lord JVelson, gained a great victory 
off Cape Trafalgar, over the combined fleets of France 
and Spain. The English captured 19 ships of the line, 
but lost their great admiral, who was slain in the action. 

17. The king of Naples having permitted a British 
and Russian army to land in his dominions, the emperor 
of France deposed the Neapolitan dynasty, and raised his 
brother Joseph to the throne ; he also compelled the 
Dutch to receive his brother Louis, as king of Holland. 
He next subverted the constitution of the German empire, 
and formed a union of several states, under the title of 
" The Confederation of the Rhine,'''' of which he was chosen 
Protector. Francis II. solemnly resigned his title as "■ em- 
peror of Germany and king of the Romans," and took that 
of hereditary emperor of Austria. The electors of Bavaria, 
Wurtemberg, and Saxony^ joined the Confederation, and 
were raised, by Bonaparte, to the rank of kings. 

18. The vast accession of power acquired by th5s alli- 
ance, was the cause of new jealousies, and hastened the 
Fowth Coahtion, formed in 1806, by which Prussia, Russia, 
Austria, Sweden, and England, were united in the war 
against France. Hostilities were commenced by the Prus- 
sivms, without waiting for the aid of Russia ; but Bonaparte, 
with his usual good fortune, gained over them the great 
battles of Jena and Auerstadt ; entered the capital of Prus- 
sia as a conqueror, and here issued the Berl n Decree, de- 
claring the British islands in a state ol blockade, and 
ordering ail ports to be shut against them. The French 
army penetrated into Poland, and gained an advantage 
over the Russians, in the hard-fought battle of Pidtusk. 

19. The following year Bonaparte fought with the 
Russians the indecisive battle of Eylaii ; defeated them at 
Fr.edland ; and having gained possession of Dantzic and 
Konigsberg, concluded the peace of Tiisit. Separate trea- 
ties were made with Russia and Prussia : the former 
gained a small acquisition of territory ; but the dominiuns 
of the latter were reduced almost one half; both agreed 
to shut their ports against England, and thus became par- 
ties in the French emperor's favourite object of excluding 
British commerce from the continent. The provinces 



FRANCE. 15S 

eonquered from Prussia, were erected into the new king- 
dom of Westphalia^ of which Jerome Bonaparte was ac- 
knowledged king. 

20. The English government, in retaliation of Bona- 
parte's Berlin Decree^ issued their Orders in Council, by 
which all neutral vessels trading with France were com- 
pelled to stop at a British port and pay a duty. After the 
peace of Tilsit, the emperor proceeded to Italy ; and at 
Milan, in consequence of the retaliatory Orders in Council, 
he issued his Milan Decree, by which every vessel which 
should submit to British search, or consent to any pecu- 
niary exactions whatever, was confiscated. 

21. Elated by his astonishing successes, the emperor of 
France appeared now to consider himself as sovereign of 
Europe, and to set at defiance all principles of justice and 
moderation. Being ambitious of appropriating more of 
the thrones of Europe to his brothers and relatives, he 
next fixed his attention on Spain and Portugal; and so 
decisive was he in the execution of his plans, that in a 
short time, the royal family of Portugal emigrated to 
Brazil. 

22. Though the king of Spain had shown himself sub- 
servient to the views of the French emperor, yet the 
latter was not content, but compelled the Spanish monarch 
to resign his crown in favour of his brother Joseph Bona- 
parte, whom he removed from Naples, and caused to be 
proclaimed king of Spain ; and he raised to the throne of 
Naples Murat, who had married his sister. 

23. The Spaniards rose in opposition to this tyrannical 
measure, and in this emergency, had recourse to England, 
who readily afforded her assistance. The war which was 
thus excited in the peninsula, continued to rage from 
1808 to 1813; and, in a series of eng^igements, the forces 
of England and Spain, under the command of Wellington 
and others, were, in most instances, victorious over the 
armies of France. Some of the principal exploits in 
this war, were the desperate, but ineffectual defence of 
Saragossa, by Palafox, and the victories of Wellington at 
Talavera, Salamanca, and Viltoria. 

24. In 1809, while the war was raging in Spain, hostili- 
ties again broke out between France and Austria, which 
were prosecuted by Bonaparte with his usual success. 
Having gained advantages over the Austrians at Abensberg^ 



154 ' FRANCE. 

Eckmuhlf and Ratishon, he entered Vienna ; afterwards 
fought, against the Archduke Charles, the indecisive bat- 
tle of Aspern or Essling, and entirely defeated him at 
Wagram. 

25. This war was terminated by the treaty of Vienna 
or Schoenbrunn^ by which the emperor of Austria was com- 
pelled to submit to considerable losses of territory, to ac- 
cede to the " continental system," and, what was more 
humiliating, to promise his daughter Maria Louisa, in 
marriage to his great and victorious enemy. In conse- 
quence of this treaty, Bonaparte was solemnly divorced 
from his empress, Josephine^ and became allied to the im- 
perial house of Austria. 

26. By the treaty of Tilsit, the emperor of Russia had 
acceded to Bonaparte's " continental system " against 
England, by agreeing to exclude British goods from his 
dominions ; but the consequences of this measure were 
extremely injurious to his subjects, and ruinous to his 
finances. The year 1811 was spent in negotiations and 
discussions ; but as they did not promise an amicable ad- 
justment, both parties prepared for war. Early in the 
spring of 1812, Bonaparte collected, in Poland, an im- 
mense army, consisting of 400,000 infantry, 60,000 cav- 
alry, and 1,200 pieces of artillery; and on the 24th of 
June, crossing the Niemen, he invaded the Russian terri- 
tories. 

27. His march was directed towards Moscow, the an- 
cient capital of the empire, and was every where marked 
with desolation and blood. He defeated the Russians at 
at Smolensk ; fought the tremendous battle of Borodino, or 
Moskwa, in which nearly 30,000 men fell on each side ; 
proceeded afterwards to Moscow, which he found envel- 
oped in flames, and abandoned by the inhabitants. The 
city had been set on fire by the direction of the governor, 
in order to prevent the French from deriving any advan- 
tage from possessing it ; and nearly three fourths of it 
were consumed, before the conflagration ceased. 

28. This extraordinary transaction was the cause of the 
greatest mortification and disappointment to Bonaparte. 
He had imagined that, after obtaining possession of Mos 
cow, he should become the arbiter of the whole Russian 
empire, and be able to prescribe to it such a peace as he 
should think proper. But his good fortune had now for 



FRANCE. 15S 

saken him ; and finding- himself thwarted in this object, 
the Russian generals concentrating their forces around 
him, and the horrors of a Russian winter approaching, he 
thought it most prudent to evacuate the cit}', and retreat 
towards the frontiers, 

29. Here began a series of disasters, losses, and suffer- 
ings, which are scarcely paralleled in history, and which 
issued in the almost entire destruction of the invading 
arm3^ About 30,000 horses perished by the severity of 
the weather in a single day ; all the pieces of cannon 
were lost ; and only 30,000 men remained to re-cross the 
Niemen. 

30. Before the French army had passed the Russian 
boundary, the emperor quitted it, and fled, in disguise, 
through Poland and Germany to Paris. He resolved to 
hazard another campaign, and raised a fresh army of 
350j000 men ; but he was now opposed by the Fifth Coali- 
tion^ consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, some of the 
confederates of the Rhine, and Sweden, subsidized by 
England. Bonaparte again put himself at the head of 
his army; was worsted by the Allies in the battle of Lut- 
zen ; defeated them in the battle of Bautzen ; repulsed 
them at Dresden, where Moreau was slain ; but was ut- 
terly routed in the tremendous battle of Leipsic^ with the 
loss of 40,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. 
The combatants, in this action, exceeded 400,000 ; a great- 
er number than has been engaged in any other battle in 
modern times. 

31. Bonaparte made his escape from the scene of his 
defeat, and proceeded to Paris. In his address to the 
Senate, he frankly acknowledged his disasters. " All Eu- 
rope," said he, " was with us a year ago — all Europe is 
now against us." Having attempted in vain to rouse the 
French people, he again joined his army. In the mean 
time the Allies had crossed the Rhine, and penetrating, 
after a desperate struggle, into the heart of France, they 
entered Paris. 

32. The situation of Bonaparte having now become 
hopeless, he abdicated the throne of France, and, after 
various deliberations, the island of Elba was fixed upon 
for his future residence ; but he was allowed to retain the 
title of emperor. The mighty empire which he had 
raised, was suddenly crumbled to the dust ; and Louis 
XVIII. was restored to the throne of his ancestors. 



156 FRANCE. 

33. A General Congress was immediately assembled at 
Vienna, to arrange and settle the affairs of Europe, with 
a view to restore, yet with many variations, the ancient 
order of things. But while the sovereigns were deliber- 
ating on these matters, Bonaparte, dissatisfied with his 
situation, made another effort to regain the throne of 
France. Landing at Frejus, he marched with 1140 men, 
writhout opposition, through the country ; presented him- 
self in an open carriage to the royal army at Melun ; was 
received with shouts of applause ; the same evening, en- 
tered Paris in triumph, amidst the loudest acclamations; 
and was proclaimed emperor: and Louis XVIII. fled, on 
his approach, to the frontiers. This progress of the ex- 
iled emperor through France, was one of the most extra- 
ordinary exploits that he ever performed ; and is without 
a parallel in history. In 20 days from his landing at Fre- 
jus, he found himself quietly seated on the throne, without 
having spilled a drop of blood. 

34. Aware that he had not returned to his former pow- 
er, he therefore, in order to strengthen his authority, 
issued some popular decrees, establishing the freedom of 
the press ; abolishing the slave-trade ; and regulating the 
taxes which weighed most heavily on the people : he also 
condescended to offer them the plan of a constitution very 
different from the system of despotism upon which he 
had before acted, and containing many excellent regula- 
tions. 

35. He had, however, but little time for legislative 
measures. As soon as his arrival in France was known at 
Vienna, he was declared by the Congress a traitor and an 
outlaw ; a new and formidable coalition was immediately 
formed against him among the European powers : he 
placed himself once more at the head of a large army, but 
was entirely defeated by the allies under the command of 
Wellington and Bliicher, in the memorable battle of Water- 
loo, which cost the French army upwards of 40,00l> men 
in killed and wounded. 

36. This battle sealed the fate of Bonaparte. He re- 
turned immediately to Paris, abdicated the throne in fa- 
vour of his son, and afterwards surrendered himself to the 
English government, claiming in a letter to the Prince 
Regent, an asylum, "■ like Themistocles, among the most 
powerful, most constant, and most generous of his ene- 



FRANCE. 157 

niies." By the unanimous agreement of the allied sove- 
reigns, he was sent a prisoner to Sf. Helena, where he 
arrived on the I7th of October, 1815; and there died on 
the 5th of May, 1821, in the 6th year of his captivity, 
and 52d of his age. 

37. 1 he career of Bonaparte surpassed, in many re- 
spects, that of every great conqueror who preceded him. 
No other man has appeared on the theatre of the world, 
%vho has been the cause of so many and so astonishing 
revolutions, or whose contemporary fame has been so 
widely extended. In his STth year, he was raised to the 
chief command of the French army ; at the age of 30, he 
caus-d himself to be elected First Consul; and in his 35th 
year, he wns proclaimed emperor of France : during the 
ten years that he possessed the imperial throuf, he was 
the most powerful potentate, not only of the age, but of 
modern times ; and he made the world tremble by the 
terror of his name. 

38 He may be emphatically called a king-maker; 
for he raised to the rank of kings, three brothers, one 
brother-in-law, and three German electors ; Bernadoite, 
also, one of his generals, was raised to the throne of Swe- 
den. The four last are now recognised among the legiti- 
mate sovereigns of Europe. 

39. He united in his own person, at an early period of 
his life, and in an advanced state of society, the conqueror, 
the usurper, and the lawgiver. He triumphed over civil- 
ized enemies ; legislated in a refined age ; and seized 
upon the sceptre of a powerful and enlightened people, 
among powerful and enlightened rivals. To him France 
is indebted for an admirable code of laws, in the formation 
of which he was an efficient agent; in which he greatly 
prided himself; and with regard to which he was repeat- 
edly heard to say, he " could wish to be buried with it in 
his^ands." 

40. He favoured, in many instances, liberal principles ; 
patronized merit independent of rank ; encouraged liber- 
ally such branches of science as were useful to his pur- 
poses; granted religious toleration; removed or diminished 
many abuses ; broke down oppressive feudal and ecclesi- 
astical institutions and establishments ; and left France, 
and also Europe, in many respects, in a better condition 
than he found them. But though he was not more unpriu- 

14 



158 FRANCE. 

ciplined than other great conquerors have been, yet his 
ruling passion was evidently insatiable ambition and lust 
of power, to which he was ready to sacrifice every prin- 
ciple of justice and humanity. No man ever enjoyed a 
greater opportunity of benefiting his species than he; but 
this opportup.ity he cast away, except so far as it suited 
his own purposes of self-aggrandizement. He chose to 
be an Alexander or a Caesar, rather than a Washington ; 
a subverter, rather than a protector of liberty ; a terror 
and a scourge, rather than a delight and a blessing to 
mankind. 

41. He exercised over his own dominions a military 
despotism : his ambition prompted him to sacrifice, with- 
out scruple, the rights and independence of nations ; and 
rendered him an enemy to freedom, and to the repose of 
the world. It was not, therefore, without reason, that the 
friends of liberty, of peace, and of human improvement, 
exulted at his downfal. His eventful life, and his miser- 
able end, furnish a most instructive lesson on the insta- 
bility of human affairs, and the vanity of human glory. 

42. After the second dethronement of Bonaparte, Louis 
XVIIL was again placed on the throne, and a second paci- 
fication took place at Paris. France was reduced to nearly 
the same limits as before the revolution ; she was com- 
pelled to restore much of the plunder which had been 
collected at Paris, to pay 28,000,000 sterling, as a partial 
indemnification for the expenses of the war, and to main- 
tain, for five years, an army of occupation, consisting of 
150,000 of allied troops, to be placed in 16 frontier for- 
tresses. In 1817, the Allies consented to reduce the army 
of occupation to one -fifth ; and in 1818, it was wholly 
withdrawn. — Marat, who had been raised to the throne 
of Naples, and Marshal JVey, having both of them sided with 
Bonaparte in his attempt to re-ascend the throne of France, 
were shot. * 

43. The principal event during the inglorious reign of 
Louis XVlll., was the invasion of Spain, by a French 
army, under the Duke d''Angouleme, by means of which, the 
designs of the Constitutionalists of Spain, for establishing a 
more liberal system of government in that country, were 
frustrated. Louis XVIII. was succeeded, in 1824, by his 
brother the Count d'Artois, whose title is Charles X. 



ENGLAND 159 



ENGLAND. 

SECTION I. 

The History of England : The Roman Conquest : The 
Saxon Conquest : The Heptarchy. — From B. C. 55 to 
A. D. 827. 

1. The history of no country, of either ancient or mod- 
ern times, is richer in various instruction, or calculated to 
excite deeper interest, than that of England. We here 
see the gradual rise of a people from a low state of bar- 
barism, to the highest rank in national power, in the arts 
both of peace and war, in commercial wealth, and intel- 
lectual and moral greatness. 

2. Ill England, liberty has maintained frequent and 
bloody conflicts with tyranny. No nation can boast of 
more ardent patriots, of firmer and more enlightened 
friends to the rights and liberties of mankind, or men of 
higher excellence, or of greater intellectual endowments, 
than are presented to us in the eventful pages of English 
history. 

3. To the citizens of the United States, the history of 
England, is next in importance to that of their own coun- 
try ; for it is, to a majority of them, the history of their 
own ancestors ; as it is also of the country from which 
have been derived, in a great measure, their language 
and literature, and their civil and religious institutions. 

4 We feel a peculiar interest and sympathy in the 
conflicts which civil and religious liberty have there 
maintained with despotism and bigotry ; for our ancestors 
were, more or less, involved in them ; and the first settle- 
ment and early growth of our country were, in a great 
degree, owing to oppression and persecution in the parent 
state. We have a fellow-feeling for the English patriots 
of former days, and the memory of John Hampden is not 
cherished with greater veneration and gratitude, in his 
native country, than in this. 

5. Britain was little known to the rest of the world till 
the time of its conquest by the Romans. Julius CcBsar 
invaded the island 55 years before the Christian era, and 
conquered a part of it. In the reign of the emperor 



160 ENGLAND, 

Clavdins, the Roman general Osto'rius defeated the British 
king Carac'tacus, and sent him a prisoner to Rome ; in the 
reign of JVcro, Sueto' nius defeated the Britons under their 
queen Boadic'ea ; and the Roman dominion was completely 
established by jgnc'ola^ who first landed in Britain A. D. 
78. He met with an obstinate resistance from Gal'gacus, 
a Caledonian chief, but in a few years made a complete 
conquest of all the southern parts of the island. 

6. At the time of this conquest the Britons were a rude 
and barbarous people, divided into numerous tribes. They 
were clothed with the skins of beasts, and their property 
consisted, almost wholly, in their arms and cattle. Their 
religion was druidism, a most cruel superstition ; and the 
Druids^ their priests, possessed great authority. They 
taught the transmigration of souls, and offered in sacrifice^ 
human victims, in great numbers. 

7. The Romans built three walls across the island, in 
order to prevent irruptions of the inhabitants from the 
north : the first was built of turf, by the emperor Adrian, 
extending from Solway Frith to the mouth of the Tyne j 
the sesond, by Antoni'nus. of earth and stone, reaching from 
the Forth to the Clyde ; and the third by Seve'rus, of stone, 
running nearly parallel with that of Adrian. Other works 
were also constructed by them, the remains of which are 
still to be seen. In the 5th century, the Romans took 
their final leave of Britain, 475 years after the landing of 
Julius Caesar. 

8. Soon afterwards the Scots and Picts, from the north- 
ern part of the island, invaded and ravaged the country. 
The Britons, in their distress, applied for assistance to 
the Saxons^ a warlike people inhabiting the north of Ger- 
many. A Saxon army of 1,600 men, commanded by two 
brothers, Hengist and Horsa, came to their relief, and the 
Scots and Ficts were defeated and driven into their own 
territories. 

9. The Saxons, finding the country much superior (o 
their own, procured from Germany a reinforcement of 
5,000 men, Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, took possession of 
Britain, and reduced the inhabitants to submission, or com- 
pelled them to leave the country, or retreat to the moun- 
tains. — From the Angles is derived the name of England. 

10. Violent contests afterwards took place, in which 
Arihw, a British prince, acquired great renown as a M'ar- 



ENGLAND, 161 

rior. In about 150 years from the Saxon invasion, the 
Heptarchy or Seven Saxon kingdoms, were established, 
which subsisted about 200 years, exhibiting a series of 
dissensions and contests. At length Egbert, by his pru- 
dence and valour, united them in^o one monarchy, under 
the name of England. 

11. About 280 years previous to this event, Augustine 
with 40 monks, had been sent to Britain to convert the 
Saxons to Christianity : the Britons had, long before, been 
parlially converted. The state of society, however, was 
still barbarous. Christianity, in the defective form in 
which it had been inculcated, had not banished the ig- 
norance of the people, nor softened the ferocity of their 
manners. 

SECTION II. 

From the Foundation of the Monarchy to the JVorman Con- 
quest.— From A. D. 827 to 1066. 

1. Scarcely had Egbert established and regulated his. 
infant monarchy, when he found himself assailed by for- 
midable enemies in the Danes, whose depredations form 
a leading feature in the early history of England, and who 
continued, for upwards of two centuries, to be a scourge 
to the country. 

2. The reign of Alfred the Great, the 6th king of Eng- 
land, forms a distinguished era in the early history of the 
monarchy. In one year he defeated the Danes in eight 
battles. But by a new irruption, they extended their 
ravages, and ibrced him to solicit a peace. He was com- 
pelled to seek his safety, for many months, in an obscure 
part of the country, disguised in the habit of a peasant, 
aud lived in a herdsman's cottage as a servant. In this 
humiliating situation, it is said that the herdsman's wife, 
on one occasion, ordered him to take care of some cakes 
that were baking by the fire ; but that he forgot his trust, 
and let them burn, for which she severely reprimanded 
him. 

3. Success having rendered his enemies remiss, and his 
followers having gained some advantages, he left his re- 
treat ; and in order to discover the state of the hostile 
army, he entered the Danish camp in the disguise of a 
harper. He excited so much interest by his musical tal~ 

14* 



162 ENGLAND. 

ents, that he was introduced to Guthrvm, the Danish 
prince, and renaained with him some days. Having dis- 
covered the unguarded condition of the Danes, he returned 
to his adherents, and with a large force attacked his ene- 
mies by surprise, and defeated them with great slaughter. 

4. After having restored tranquillity to his distracted 
kingdom, he employed himself in cultivating the arts of 
peace, and in raising his subjects from the depths of 
wretchedness, ignorance, and barbarism. He divided Eng- 
land into counties, composed a code of laws, established 
trial by jury, founded the university of Oxford, instituted 
schools, and, for the instruction of his people, translated a 
numbf-r of works into the Saxon language. 

5. The character of Alfred shines forth with distinguish- 
ed lustre in a dark age. He was one of the greatest and 
best sovereigns that ever sat on a throne, — equally excel- 
lent in his private and his public character. He was distia- 
gu'shed for his personal accomplishments both of body 
and mind, and is reputed the greatest warrior, legislator, 
and scholai of the age in which he lived. 

6 Alfred was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed 
the Elder, from his being the first English monarch of that 
name. He inherited the military genius of his father, 
and his reign was a continued, but successful struggle 
against the Northumbrians and Danes, who were powerful 
in the north of England. 

7. Athektan, an able and popular sovereign, was suc- 
cessful in his wars wth the Danes, Northumbrians, Scots, 
Irish, and Welsh, and enlarged and strengthened his 
kingdom. He caused the Scriptures to be translated into 
the Saxon language, and enacted a law which conferred 
the rank of thane, or gentleman, on every merchant, who 
made three voyages to the Mediterranean. 

8. Edmund, after a short reign, was assassinated by the 
notorious robber Leiilf. Edred was the slave of supersti- 
tion,^ and became the dupe of the famous Dunslun, who 
was afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and was canon- 
ized as a saint, and with regard to whose pretended con- 
flicts with the devil, ridiculous stories are related in 
history. Dunstan possessed great abilities, and, under the 
appearance of sanctity, veiled the most inordinate am- 
bition ; yet in these times of superstition and barbarism^, 
be gained great ascendancy over the sovereigns aiiid the 
people. 



ENGLAND, 163 

9. Edwy, or Edwin^ by marrying Elgiva, a beautiful 
princess nearly related to him, gave offence to Dunstan ; 
and archbishop Odo caused her to be put to death in the 
most cruel manner 

10. Edgar pn^moted Dunstan to the archbishopric of 
Canterbury, and made him his chief counsellor. His 
reign is remarkable for being the period in which Eng- 
land was freed from wclvt's. Edgar having heard of tlie 
extraor;linary beauty of Eifr.dn, daughter of the Earl of 
Devonshire, sent Athelvvold his favourite, to ascf^rlain the 
truth of it. Athelvvold, overcome by the charms of El- 
frida, on his return, assured the king that the account of 
her beauty had been greatly exaggerated, and obtained 
the king's permission to many her himself. But the king 
having afterwards discovered the treachery of his lavour- 
ite, put him to death, and married Elfrida. 

11. Edgar was succeeded by E>^ward^ his son by his 
first marriage, who was assassinated, in the 4th year of 
his reign, and 19th of his age, at the instigation of his 
moth.r-in-law Elfr'da; and from this circumstance he was 
surnamed t>e Martyr. 

12. Ethelred II., the son of Edgar and Elfrida. succeeded 
to the throne at the age of 1 1 years. He was a weak 
monarch, surnamed the Unready. The Danes again re- 
newed their ravages, and by the order of the king, such 
of these foreigners as were settled throughout England, 
were massacred, at the festival of St. Brice., without 
distinction of age or sex. The news of this barbarous 
transaction, arriving in Denmark, fired every bosom with 
a desire of vengeance. 

13. A large army of Danes, under their king Sweyrif 
invaded and ravaged the country. Ethelred fled to Nor- 
mandy, and Sweyn was acknowledged sole king of England ; 
but he survived his exaltation only a short time, and 
Ethelred was again restored. The latter dying not long 
afterwards, was succeeded by his son Edmund, surnamed 
/rons'de, from bis strength and valour; but his abilities 
and courage were insufficient to save his sinking country. 

14. On the death of Sweyn, his son Canute was pro- 
claimed king of England by the Danes. Having expelled 
a younger brother who had usurped the throne of Den- 
mark, Canute asserted his claim to the crown of England, 
invaded the country with a numerous army, and compelled- 



164 ENGLAND, 

the king' to divide his dominions with him. Edmund was 
soon after murdered by the treachery of Edric, his brother- 
in-law, and Canute became sole monarch. He was the 
most powerful sovereign of his time in Europe, and was 
styled the Greats from his talents and successes. In the 
former part of his reign he was severe, but in the latter 
part, mild and beneficent, and he died lamented. 

16. Canute was succeeded by his son Harold., surnamed 
Harefoot, from his swiftness in running ; and on his d>ath 
the throne was filled by his brother Canute 11. or Hardi- 
canute, the last of the Danish kings. These two monarchs 
were neither of them distinguished for any virtue, and 
their reigns were fortunately short. 

16. The English now shook off the Danish yoke, and 
restored the Saxon line in Edmmrd., brother of Edmund 
Ironside. The monks conferred on him the title of Co7i- 
fessor., and say that he was favoured with the special 
privilege of curing the scrofula or King^s Evil. This 
power was long supposed to have descended to his succrs- 
sovs, and the superstitious practice of touching for that 
disorder, was continued by the kings of England, fj'om this 
period till the revolution of 1688. — Edward, having no 
children, bequeathed the crown to William^ Duke of JVov' 
mandy ; but on his death Harold., the son of the Earl 
Godwin, an ambitious and powerful nobleman, was elected 
king by the nobility and clergy. 

17. Wtlliam of Normandy resolved to recover the crown 
of England by force of arms ; and having raised an army 
of 60,000 men, be invaded the country. Harold^ at the 
head of an army of about equal numbers, met him, and 
was defeated and slain in the memorable battle of Hastings. 
The Normans lost about 15 000 men; and the English 
the greater part of their army. The nation soon submit- 
ted to the sceptre of William, who was surnamed the Con- 
queror. 

SECTION III. 

The Norman Family : — William I. the Conqueror ; Williatn 
II.; Henry I.; Stephen.— From Ji. D. 1066 to 1154. 

1 . William possessed great abilities both as a statesman 
and a warrior. In his person he was tall and well pro- 
portioued, and is said to have been so strong, that scarcely 



ENGLAND. 165 

any other person in that age could bend his bow or handle 
his arms. In his temper he was haughty, ambitious, and 
tyrannical ; and his government, though in some respects 
beneficial, was characterized by great severity. 

2. i:ie disgusted the English by promoting his Norman 
followers to all offices of importance. He caused the 
Norman language to be adopted in the service of the 
church, as well as in the courts of justice ; he introduced 
the feudal system, exchanged trial by jury for the perni- 
cious one of single combat ; and compelled the people to 
extinguish their fires at the sound of the curfe-w hell 
[the Jire-covering bell], which was rung at 8 o'olock in the 
evening. 

3. By his forest laws he reserved to himself the exclu- 
sive privilege of killing game throughout the kingdom ; 
and made it a greater crime to take the life of an animal 
th;in of a man. He formed the JVew Forest by depopulating 
a tract of country about 30 miles in circuit, demolishing 
36 parishes churches, together with the houses "of the 
inhabitants. — One of the most useful acts of his reign was 
bis compiling Doomsday Book, which contained a register 
of all the estates of the kingdom. 

4. William II., surnamed Rufvs, from his red hair, was 
perfidious, tyrannical, and cruel. His reign was disturbed 
by insurrections, and by quarrels with the ecclesiastics, 
particulariy with Anselm, the primate. He was accident- 
ally shot by Sir Waiter Tyrrel, with an arrow aimed at a 
stag in the JVew Forest. 

5. Henry I., surnamed Beauclerc, or the Scholar, on account 
of his learning, was the younger brother of William Rufus. 
He took advantage of the absence of his elder brother 
Robert, the rightful heir, who was on a crusade to the 
Holy Land, and secured the crown for himself. He in- 
vaded his brothers Norman dominions, and Robert, on 
his return, w;'.s defeated, taken prisoner, and confined in 
Wales till his death. 

G. He married Matilda of 'Scotland, great grand-daughter 
o? Edmund Ironside, and in this way the Saxon and Korman 
families were united. The latter part of his life was 
rendered disconsolate by the loss of his only son, who was 
drowned on his passage from Normandy : and from that 



166 ENGLAND. 

fatal moment, he was never seen to smile. Henry was an 
able, courageous, and accomplished sovereign ; but am- 
Sitious, licentious, and ungrateful. 

7. On the death of Henry the crown fell by right to 
his daughter Mfnilda or Maud^ married first to Henry V., 
emperor of Germany, and afterwards to Henry Plantagenet, 
Earl of A you. By the latter she had several children, 
of whom the eldest bore the name of Henry. But the 
popularity of Stephen^ cousin to the late king, enabled him 
to usurp the throne. Matilda immediately landed in Eng- 
land, and raising a small army, defeated Stephen, and took 
pos^session of the crown ; but her haughty and despotic 
behaviour caused a revolt, and Stephen, in his turn, de- 
feated her, compelled her to quit the kingdom, and again 
obtained possession of the throne. 

8. Henry, the son of Matilda, afterwards invaded Eng- 
land : but by the influence of the Earl of Arundel^ the two 
rivals had recourse to treaty ; and it was agreed that 
Stephen should retain the crown during his life, and that 
Henry should be his successor. — Stephen was distinguish- 
ed for ambition, valour, and generosity ; and if he had 
succeeded by a just title, his reign, instead of being ren- 
dered unhappy by continual and bloody contests, might 
have been honourable to himself, and useful to his sub- 
jects. 

SECTION IV. 

Family of Plantagenet : — Henry II. ; Richard I. ; John ; 
Henry III. ; Edward L; Edward II.; Edward III.; Rich- 
ard ll.—From A.D. 1154 io 1399. 

1. Henry II., the first of the Plantagenets^heing descend- 
ed by his grandmother from the Saxon kings., and by his 
mother from the JVorman family., succeeded to the throne 
to the great satisfaction of the nation. In addition to 
England, he possessed, by inheritance and by marriage, 
nearly one half of Fn/nce, and during his rpign he -con- 
quered Ireland: so that he had more extensive dominions 
than any English monarch who had preceded him, and was 
the most powerful sovereign of his age. 

2. Some of the most remarkable circumstances in Hen- 
ry's reign relate to his contests with Thomas d Becket, a 



ENGLAND. 167 

man of extraordinary talents and ambition, whom he first 
created Chancellor^ and afterw.irds ArJihishop of Canter- 
bury. While chancellor, Becket displayed great haughti- 
ness and magnificence ; but when he became archbishop, 
he put on sackcloth, and wore the habit of a monk. Un- 
der this show of humility and mortification, he concealed 
the most ambitious designs, and exalted his power to such 
a degree, that it would admit of question, whether the 
king or the [irimate was the first man in the kingdom. 

3. During the preceding reign, the power of the clergy 
had increased to a most exorbitant height ; they were 
also extremely corrupt in their morals, and committed, 
with impunity, the most enormous crimes. It was proved 
in the presence of the king, that since his accession, more 
than 100 murders had been perpetrated by ecclesiastics, 
not one of whom had been punished. 

4. Heriry resolved to restrain the authority, and reform 
the abuses of the clergy, and tor this purpose he framed 
the Constitutions of Clarendon ; but he experienced from 
Becket the most determined resistance. After a long se- 
ries of contests with the haughty primate, the king was, 
on a certain occasion, so exasperated, by his audacious 
conduct, that he rashly exclaimed, '"What! among all 
those whom I have obliged, is there none who will avenge 
me of that insolent priest?" The words were scarcely 
spoken, when four knights of the king's household set out 
with a resolution to avenge the wrongs of their sovere/gn. 
They pursued the prelate into the cathedral, and assassi- 
nated him before the altar. 

5. The account of this transaction filled Henry with 
consternation, and caused great excitement in England. 
Becket was canonized by the pope as a saint, by the title 
of St. Thomas of Canterbury, and numerous miracies were 
pretended to be wrought at his tomb, which became a 
celebrated resort of pilgrims, 100,000 ot whom are said 
to have been present at a jubilee which was observed 
once in 50 years. 

6. .Henry publicly expressed his sorrow for having used 
the rash words which had occasioned the death of the 
primate, and expiated his offence by a humiliating penance 
at his tomb. Having approached within three miles of 
of Canterbury, he dismounted, walking barefoot over the 
flinty road, which, in some places, he marked with blood,, 



. 168 ENGLAND. 

to the consecrated spot, spent there, in fasting and prayer, 
a day and night, and even prt-sented his bare shoulders to 
be scourg'ed by the monks with a knotted cord. 

7. The latter part of Henry's life furnishes a memora- 
ble instance of royal infelicity, which was, in some measure, 
occasioned by his own excessive licentiousness. He cher- 
ished illicit love for many women, one of whom was the 

fair Rosamond, who is described as the most beautiful 
woman ever.seen in England, and wiio made a conspicuous 
figure in the ballads and romances of the times. 

8. This unrestrained indulgence of the king so irritated 
his queen, Ekunnr^ that she sought revenge by instigating 
his four sons, when they had scarcely arrived at manhood, 
to revolt ag-ainst him. Assisted by the king of France, 
they engaged in a series of rebellions with a design to 
wrest the crown from the r father. 

9. When Henry found that his youngest and favourite 
son John had joined the confederacy against him, he felt 
that his cup of adiiction vyas full ; gave himself up to trans- 
ports of ungovernable grief; cursed the day of his birth ; 
uttered imprecations against his sons which he could 
never be prevailed upon to retract; and, worn out with 
cares, disappointments, and sorrows, died of a broken 
heart. 

10. Henry is ranked among the ablest and most useful 
sovereigns that have occupied the throne of England. 
He was great as a warrior and a statesman, possessed many 
amiable as well as brilliant qualities, and governed his 
kingdom much better than his own passions. 

11. This reign is remarkable for the introduction of 
various improvements with regard to the conveniences 
and comforts of life. The arts of luxury, were yet in a 
rude state. Glass windows were regarded as a mark of 
extraordinary magnificence ; and the houses of the citizens 
of London were constructed of wood, and covered with 
thatch, with windows of lattice or paper. 

12. The descr ption of the magnificence displayed by 
Beckett while he was chancellor of the kingdom, will af- 
ford some idea of the rude state of the arts, Nobody, it 
is said by contemporary writers, equalled him in refine- 
ment and splendour. " Every day, in winter, his apart- 
ments were strewed with clean straw or hay, and in 
summer, with rushes or leaves, that those who came t^ 



ENGLAND. 169 

pay their court to him, mig-ht not soil their fine clothes 
by sitting on a dirty floor." 

13. Richard I., snrnamed Ccsur de Lion.) or Lion-hearted, 
has been styled the Achil'les of modern history. He pos- 
sessed great military talents, and was brave, open, and 
generous; but ambitious, haughty, and cruel. He em- 
barked on a crusade for the Holy Land, in connexion with 
Philip Augustus of France. They took Acre in concert, 
and Richard defeated the heroic Sal'adin in the battle of 
Asculon^ in which 40,000 of the Saracens were slain, 

14. On his voyage homeward, being shipwrecked, he 
disguised himself, with an intention of travelling through 
Germany ; but he was discovered, and imprisoned by the 
emperor. He was ransomed by his subjects for the sum 
of ,£.300,000, and after an absence of nine years, returned 
to his dominions; but he died, not long after, of a wound 
which he received at the siege of the castle of one of his 
rebellious vassals in France. His reign was oppressive 
to his subjects, who were impoverished by his useless and 
expensive ^vars. 

15. Richard was succeeded by his brother /oA?i, who is 
supposed to have murdered his nephew Arthur, the son of 
Geoffrey, an elder brother. Philip Augustus of France 
supported the claim of Arthur to the throne ; and, on ac- 
count of his being murdered, he stripped the English 
monarch of his possessions in that country. In conse- 
quence of this loss of his territories, John received the 
surname of Lackland. 

IG. John excited against himself the displeasure of 
Inn-'cent III., the haughty and tyrannical pontiff, who pro- 
ceeded to lay the kingdom under an interdict, and after- 
wards excommunicated the king, and absolved his subjects 
from their allegiance. The wretched monarch was intim- 
idated into subiiission, and on his knees solemnly surren- 
dered his kingdom to the holy see, consenting to hold it 
as the pope's vas.-jal. In this manner he made peace with 
th? church, but he brought upon himself the universal 
contempt and hatred of his ppople. 

17. The barons, unrier the direction of Lartgton, the 
the primate, formed a coo fed err^cy. and demanded of the 
king a ratihcation of a charter ot priviJ'^<:es. John, barst- 
15 



170 ENGLAND. 

ing into a furious passion, refused their demand. They 
immediately proceeded to open war; and the king, finding 
himself deserted, was compelled to yield. He met his 
barons at Runny-mede, and after a debate of a few days, 
signed and sealed the famous deed of Magna Charta, or 
the Great Charter, which secured important liberties and 
privileges to every order of men in the kingdom ; and 
which is regarded as the great bulwark of English liberty. 
John granted, at the same time, the Charter of the Forest, 
which abolished the exclusive right of the king to kill 
game all over the kingdom, 

18. The character of John is represented as more odi- 
ous than that of any other English monarch ; debased by 
every vice, with scarcely a single redeeming virtue. His 
reio-n, though most unhappy and disastrous, is, notwith- 
standing, memorable as the era of the dawn of English 
freedom. 

19. Henry III., who succeeded to the throne at the age 
of only nine years, was a prince of a mild disposition, but of 
weak understanding, and so capricious and irresolute, that 
neither his friendship nor his resentment was much regard- 
ed. By his attachment to foreign and unworthy favourites, 
he disgusted his nobles^ and by his profusion, and his 
oppressive exactions, he lost the aifection of his people. 
His reign was unhappy, consisting of a series of vexatious 
conflicts ; yet the cause of popular freedom was ad- 
vanced. 

20. The barons, with Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leices- 
ter, at their head, entered into a confederacy to seize the 
reins of government; and they compelled Henry to dele- 
gate the regal power to 24 of their number. These 
divided among themselves all the offices of government, 
and new modeled the parliament, by summoning a certain 
number of knights chosen from each county. 

21. This measure proved fatal to the power of the 
barons ; for the knights, indignant at Leicester's usurpa- 
tion, concerted a plan for restoring the king. A civil war 
ensued. Leicester, at the head of a formidable force, 
defeated the royal army at Lewes, and made both the king 
and his son Edward prisoners. He compelled the feeble 
king to ratify his authority by a solemn treaty ; assumed 
the character of regent, and called a parliament, summon- 



ENGLAND. 171 

ing two knights from each shire, and deputies from the 
principal boroughs. This is regarded as the era of the 
commencement of the House of Commons^ being the first 
time that representatives to parliament were sent from 
the boroughs. 

22. Prince Edward^ being at length restored to his 
liberty, took the field against Leicester, and defeated him 
with great slaughter, in the famous battle of Evesham. In 
this battle Leicester himself was killed, and Henry, by 
the assistance of his son, was again placed on the throne. 

23. Edzvard L, surnamed Longshanks, from the length 
of his legs, on succeeding to the throne, caused 280 Jews 
in London to be hanged at once, on a charge of having 
corrupted the coin; and 15,000 were robbed of their 
eflfects, and banished from the kingdom. He soon after 
undertook to subdue Wales, and having defeated and slain 
the sovereign prince, Llezoellyn, he annexed the country to 
the crown of England. He created his oldest son Prince 
of Wales, a title which has ever since been borne by the 
oldest sons of the English monarchs. 

24. The conquest of Wales inflamed the ambition of 
Edward, and inspired him with the design of extending 
his dominion to the extremity of the island. On the death 
of Alexander III., who left no son, Bruce and Baliol were 
competitors for the crown of Scotland, and Edward was "^ 
chosen umpire to decide the contest between the two 
rivals. He adjudged the crown to Baliol, who engaged 
to hold it as a vassal of the king of England. Baliol, how- 
ever, soon afterwards renounced his allegiance ; hence 
arose a war between England and Scotland, which lasted, 
with little intermission, upwards of 70 years, and drenched 
both kingdoms with blood. Edward invaded Scotland with 

a large army ; defeated the Scots with great slaughter in 
the battle of Dunbar; subdued the kingdom; and Bajiol 
was carried captive to London. 

25. While Edward was prosecuting a war in France, 
the Scots were roused to exertion, for the recovery of 
their independence, by the renowned hero, William Wal- 
lace ; but after gaining a series of victories, they were at 
length defeated by the English, with immense loss, in the 
battle of Falkirk. Wallace became a prisoner of Edward- 
who put him to death, with the most barbarous cruelty. 



i72 ENGLAND. 

The Scots found a second chanrjpion and deliverer in 
Robert Briice^ grandson of" the ccmpetitor of BaSiol, who, 
having expelled the British from the country, was raised 
to the throne of his ancestors. Edward prepared to make 
a new invasion with an immense army, but died after hav- 
ing advanced as far as Carlisle. 

26. Edward was one of the greatest of the English 
sovereigns. He was eminent as a warrior; and on ac- 
count of his wisdom as a legislator, he has been styled the 
English Justinian. He vi'as ambitious, vindictive, arbi- 
trary, and possessed of little feeling for the miseries of 
mankind ; yet he was greatly revered by his subjects, and 
his reign was highly advantageous to the kingdom. He 
repeatedly ratified Magna Charta, and an important clause 
was added to secure the people from the imposition of 
any tax without the consent of parliament. Ever since 
that time there has been a regular succession of English 
parliaments. 

27. Edward II., surnamed of Caernarvon^ from the place 
of his birth, soon after succeeding to the throne, in com- 
pliance with his father''s dying injunction, invaded Scot- 
land, with an army of 100,000 men, which was met at 
Bannockburn bj' 30,000 Scots, under their king Robert 
Bruce. A great battle ensued, in whsch the English sus- 
tained a more disastrous defeat, than they had experienced 
since the battle of Hastings. 

28. Edward was of a mild disposition, but weak and in- 
dolent, and governed by unworthy favourites, the most 
famous of whom were Gaveston and the two Spencers. 
His inglorious reign was characterized b}' the corruption 
of the court, and quarrels between the crown and the 
barons ; and his life was rendered unhappy by a series of 
mortifications and misfortunes. 

29. Isabella, his inlamous queen, fixed her affections, 
which had long been estranged from her husband, upon 
Mortimer, a powerful baron, and she, together with her 
paramour, formed a conspiracy against the king, and com- 
pelled him to resign the crown to his son. He was then 
thrown into prison, and afterwards murdered, by order of 
Mortimer, in a manner shocking to humanity. 

30. Edtcard III. succee(^ed to the throne at the age of 



ENGtAND. 173 

14 years. A council of regency, consisting of 12 persons, 
was appointed, during the minority of the king; yet 
Mortimer and Isabella possessed the chief control. But 
Edward, on coming of age, could not endure the authority 
of a man who had caused the murder of his father, or of a 
mother stained with the foulest crimes. Mortimer was 
condemned by parliament, and hanged upon a gibbet ; and 
Isabella was imprisoned for life, and continued for 25 years, 
a miserable monument of blasted ambition. 

31. Edward, soon after he was established on the throne, 
made war with the Scots, and defeated them with great 
slaughter, in the battle of Halidown Hill. 

32. On the death of Charles IV., he laid claim to the 
crown of Fi-ance, in right of his mother, and turned his 
arms against that kingdom. His fleet of 250 sail, was met 
by that of France, consisting of 400 ships, off the coast of 
Flanders, near Hehoetsluys ; and a great battle was fought, 
in which the French were defeated, with the loss of 230 
ships, and 30,000 men. Edward then invaded France at the 
head of 30,000 troops ; and in the famous battle of Cressy, 
gained a splendid victory over Philip, the French king, 
who had an army of upwards of 100,000 men, and whose 
loss exceeded 30.000. This victory is attributed, in a 
great measure, to the heroism of Edward the Black Prince, 
who, being then only 16 vears of age, here began his 
splendid career. I'he battle of Cressy is memorable for 
be ng the first in English his^tory, in which cannon was 
made use of. — Edward afterwards besieged and took Calais, 
which remained in the possession of the English till the 
time of queen Mary. 

33. While the tinglish monarch was in France, the Scots, 
under their king, David, invaded England, and were de- 
feated in the battle of Durham., by Philippa. Edward's 
heroic queen, and their king was led prisoner to Lon- 
don. Of the four generals under the queen, three were 
prelates. 

34. John, who succeeded his father in the throne of 
France, took the field with an army of 60.000 men, against 
the Black Prince, who, with only 16,000 troops, gained a 
signal victory at Poictiers. King John was taken prisoner, 
and led in triumph, by the victorious prince, to London, 
where he was kept a fellow captive with David of Scot- 
land. 

15* 



174 ENGLAND. 

35. Edward, in the latter part of his reign, experienced 
a reverse of fortune. His son, the Black Prince, (so called 
from the colour or covering of his armour,) falling into a 
lingering consumption, was obliged to resign the command 
of the army ; and Charles V. of France, an able sovereign, 
recovered most of the English possessions in that country. 
The death of the Black Prince, illustrious for his amiable 
virtues, as well, as noble and heroic qualities, plunged 
the nation in grief, and broke the spirits of his father, 
who survived him but little more than a year. 

36. Edward was the most powerful prince of his time 
in Europe ; and his reputation as a general was surpassed 
only by that of his heroic son. His reign, in regard to 
military achievements, is the most brilliant in English his- 
tory. But his wars with France and Scotland were unjust 
in their object, and the cause of extreme wretchedness 
and devastation to those conntries ; and jof much injury, 
and no real advantage, to his own kingdom. He was am- 
bitious and arbitrary ; yet humane, affable, and generous ; 
and by his excellent domestic administration, was far more 
useful to his subjects than by his foreign victories. 

37. In his reign chivalry was in its zenith in England ; 
and in all the virtues which adorned the knightly charac- 
ter, in courtesy, muniticence, and gallantry ; in all the 
delicate and magnanimous feelings, none were more con- 
spicuous than Edward III. and the Black Prince. Their 
court was, as it were, the sun of that system, which em* 
braced the valour and nobility of the Christian world. 

38. Richard II., the unworthy son of Edward the Black 
Prince, succeeded to the throne at the age of 1 1 years. 
He was indolent, prodigal, perfidious, and a slave to 
pleasure. The administration of the government, during 
the minority of the king, was intrusted to his three uncles, 
the dukes of Lancaster, Yerk, and Gloucester, whose; con- 
tests embroiled all the public measures. The Duke of 
Lancaster^! John of Gaunt, or Ghent (so named from the 
place of his birth), was the most prominent of the three ; 
but he was obnoxi^'us to a great part of the nation, especially 
the clergy, on account of his being the patron of Wickliffe, 
the reforii:er, whose opposition to the tyranny and corrup- 
tions of Rome commenced in the preceding reign, and 
gained him many adherents. 



ENGLAND. 175 

39. A poll-tax of three groats, imposed upon every male 
and female, above the age of 15 years, excited universal 
discontent among the lower classes, on account of its in- 
justice, in requiring as much of the poor as of the rich. 
One of the brutal tax-gatherers, having demanded pay- 
ment for a blacksmith's daughter, whom the father asserted 
to be below the age specified, was proceeding to improper 
familiarities with her, when the enraged father dashed out 
his brains with a hammer. The spectators applauded the 
action ; a spirit of sedition spread through the kingdom ; 
and 100.000 insurgents were soon assembled under their 
leader Wat Tyler, who was slain, and his followers were 
finally compelled to submit. 

40. While the kingdom was convulsed with domestic 
contests, it was also engaged in hostilities with France 
and Scotland. At Otterburn was fought, between the Eng- 
lish under Percy (surnamed Hotspur^ on account of his 
fiery temper), and the Scotch under Douglas, a battle, in 
which Percy was taken prisoner, and Douglas was slain. — 
On this battle is founded the celebrated ballad of Chevy 
Chace. 

41. Richard having undertaken an expedition to Ire- 
land, in order to quell an insurrection, Henry, the youno- 
duke of Lancaster, and cousin to the king, took advantage 
of his absence, rose in rebellion, and compelled him, on 
his return, to resign the crown. The king being gener- 
ally detested, the parliament readily confirmed his depo- 
sition ; he was then imprisoned, and afterwards murdered. 
The duke of Lancaster was raised to the throne with the 
title of Henry IV. ; though Edmund Mortimer was the 
true heir to the crown, being descended from Lionel, the 
3d son of Edward III. ; whereas Henry was the son of 
John of Gaunt, the 4th son of Edward HI. Hence began 
the contests between the houses of York and Lancaster. — 
The wife of Richard II., An7ie of Bohemia, who was styled, 
long after her death, " The good Queen Anne," was a 
protector of the followers of Wickliffe. 



17G EWGLAN©. 



SECTION V. 

Branch of Lancaster : — Henry IV. ; Henry V. ; Henry VI. 
From A. D. 1399 to 1461. 

1. Henry IV., surnarned Bolingbroke, who succeeded to 
the throne by the deposition and murder of the lawful 
king, and the exclusion of the rightful heir, soon found 
that the throne of a usurper is but a bed of thorns. A 
combination was immediately formed against him. The 
Scots under Douglas, and the Welsh under Owen Qlen- 
dower^ took part with the rebels ; but their united forces 
were defeated in a most desperate and bloody battle 
at Shrewsbury^ and their leader Percy \^Hotsj}ur~\ was 
killed. 

2. While a subject, Henry was supposed to have im- 
bibed the religious principles of his father, John of Gaunt, 
the patron of Wickhffe and his followers. But he made 
his faith yield to his interest; as he needed the support 
of the clergy, he procured their favour by endeavouring to 
suppress the opinions which his father had supported ; and 
he has the unenviable distinction of having his name re- 
corded in history, as the first English monarch that burnt 
his subjects on account of religion. 

3. Henry was distinguished sor his military talents and 
for his political sagacity; and had he succeeded to the 
throne by a just title, he would have been ranked as one 
of the greatest of the English raonarchs. He had been 
one of the most popular nobJemen in the kingdom; yet, 
although his reign was, in many respects, beneficial to the 
nation, he became a most unpopular sovereign. His peace 
of mind was destroyed by jealousy and by remorse ; he 
was an object of pity even when seated on the throne ; 
and he felt the truth of the language which Shakspeare 
puts into his mouth ; "• Uneasy lies the head that wears a 
crown." 

4. The latter part of his life was embittered by the 
extreme profligacy of his son Henry, Prince of Wales. 
One of the prince's dissolute companions having been 
indicted before the chief justice, Sir William Gascoigne^ 
for some misdemeanor, he was so exasperated at the issue 
of the trial, that he struck the judge in open court. The 
venerable magistrate, mindful of the dignity of his office, 



ENGLAND. 177 

ordered the prince to be committed to prison. Henry 
quietly submitted, and acknowledged his error. 

5. When the circumstance was related to the king, he 
is said to have exclaimed, in a transport of joy, '■'• Happy 
is the king who has a magistrate endowed with courage 
to execute the laAvs upon such an offender ; still more 
happy io having a son willing to submit to such chastise- 
ment ! " 

6. Henry V., on succeeding to the throne, immediately 
assembled his former riotous companions ; acquainted them 
with his intended reformation ; forbade their appearance 
in his presence till they should imitate his example ; and 
dismissed them with liberal presents. He commended 
the chief justice for his impartial conduct, and encouraged 
him to persevere in a strict execution of the laws. This 
victory which he gained over himself, is incomparably 
more honourable to him, than the martial exploits which 
have immortalized his name. 

1. The Wickhffites, or Lollards, were now numerous in 
England, and had for their leader the famous Sir John 
Olclcastle, Lord Cobham, a nobleman of distinguished tal- 
ents. Henry, in matters of religion, was under the influ- 
ence of an intolerant clergy, and particularly of Arundel^ 
the primate, who excited a cruel persecution against 
these reputed heretics. Lord Cobham, being condemned 
for heresy, was hung up by the middle with a chain, and 
roasted alive. 

8. Henry revived the claim to the crown of France ; 
and taking advantage of disorders in that kingdom, invaded 
it with an army of about 15,000 men, and defeated the 
French army, amounting to 60,000 men, in the memorable 
battle of Agincourt. The loss of the French amounted to 
11,000 killed, and 14,000 prisoners. Henry afterwards 
reduced all Normandy, was declared regent of France, 
and acknowledged heir to that crown. But death soon 
put an end to his career of victory. 

9. The reign of Henry was glorious rather than benefi- 
cial to England ; his views of conquest were extravagant 
and of pernicious consequence. He was one of the most 
heroic of the English sovereigns; magnanimous, generous, 
and aifable ; but, in regard to religion, bigoted and intol- 
erant. 



178 ENGLAND. 

10. Henry VI. succeeded to the throne when an infant only 
nine months old, and was proclaimed king both of England 
and France. His education was entrusted to Cardinal 
Beaufort^ brother of his grandfather Henry IV. His uncles, 
the dukes of Bedford and Gloucester^ were appointed pro- 
tectors or guardians of his dominions, the former for 
France, and the latter for England. 

11. Charles VII., the Dauphin, being supported by the 
French people, recovered the kingdom by degrees; and 
the English being compelled, by that extraordinary he- 
roine, Joan of Jlrc, to raise the siege of Orleans, were 
afterwards stripped of all their conquests in that country, 
except Calais and Guienne. 

12. Henry, on coming of age, proved himself to be mild 
and inoffensive, but totally incapable of managing the 
reins of government : " he would have adorned a cloister, 
though he disgraced a crown." He married the famous 
Margaret of Anjou, a woman whose great talents, ambition, 
and heroism, well fitted her to supply the defects of her 
husband in the wars which distracted his reign : but her 
intriguing ambition and cruelty multiplied the number of 
her enpmies. 

13. Discontents prevailing among the people, an insur- 
rection broke out, headed by Jack Cade, who assumed the 
name of John Mortimer, and collected an army of 20,000 
rebels ; but he was defeated and slain. 

14. The Duke of Gloucester, a favourite of the nation, and 
presumptive heir to the crown, [that is, heir in case the king 
should die without issue] had opposed the marriage of Hen- 
ry with Margaret. From this circumstance he became ob- 
noxious to the queen, and his death soon after took place 
in a suspicious manner. This event, added to the im- 
becility of the king, encouraged the Duke of York to 
assert his claim to the crown. 

15. The houses of York and Lancaster were both de- 
scended from Edward III. ; that of York from his 3d son, 
and that of Lancaster from his 4th : the rightful title was, 
of course, on the side of the former. Each party was distin- 
guished by a particular symbol ; that of the house of York 
was a white rose, and that of Lancaster a red one ; hence 
the civil contests were styled the wars of the Two Roses. 
This fatal quarrel, which now [1465] broke out into open 
hostilities, lasted 30 years, was signalized by 12 sanguinary 



ENGLAND. 179 

pitched battles, and marked by the most unrelenting 
barbarity. During the contest, more than 100,000 of tlie 
bravest men of the nation, including 80 princes of the 
blood, fell on the field, or were executed on tne scaffold. 

16. In the battles of St. Albans and Northampton^ the 
Lancastrians were defeated, and the king was taken pris- 
oner; but queen Margaret^ having collected a large army, 
gained the battle of Wakefield^ in which the Duke of York 
was defeated and slain. But his son and successor, at the 
head of a numerous army, entered London, amidst the 
shouts of the citizens, and was proclaimed king, by the 
title of Edward IV. 

SECTION VI. 

Branch of York : — Edward IV. ; Edward V. ; Edward VI. 
From A.D. 1461 to 1485. 

1. The new king was not permitted to enjoy the crown 
in peace. The heroic Margaret again collected an army 
of 60,000 men, which was met by the Yorkists, to the 

'number of upwards of 40,000, under the command oi Ed- 
ward and the Earl of Warwick, A tremendous battle was 
fought at Towton, in which Edward obtained a decisive 
victory, and upwards of 36,000 Englishman, slain by one 
another's hands, were left dead on the field. — Henry was 
afterwards taken prisoner, confined in the Tower, and 
there, after being liberated and a second time imprisoned, 
was finally murdered. 

2. The unfortunate queen, accompanied by her son, a 
boy eight years old, while flying from her enemies, was be- 
nighted in Hexham forest, and fell into the hands of ruffians, 
who stripped her of her jewels, and treated her with great 
indignity. After she was liberated from them, being over- 
come with fatigue and terror, she sunk in despair ; but was 
suddenly roused by the approach of a robber, with a drawn 
sword. Seeing no way to escape, she rose and presented 
to him her child: " My friend," said she, ''here is your 
king's son, whom I commit to your protection." The 
man, pleased with this unexpected confidence reposed in 
him, afforded every assistance in his power, and conducted 
the mother and son, through numerous perils, to a small 
sea-port, whence they sailed to Flanders. 

3. The house of York had been hitherto supported by 
the important assistance of the Earl of Warwick, the most 



180 ENGLAND. ^ 

powerful baron in Eng'land, and the greatest general of 
his time. But Edward having' given offence to his bene- 
factor, Warwick was induced to abandon him, and to sup- 
port the Lancastrians. By his exertions, Edward was 
deposed, and Henry, after having been a prisoner 6 years 
in the Tower, was released, and again proclaioied king. 
Thus Warwick, having restored Henry, whom he had 
deposed, and pulled down Edward, whom he had placed 
on the throne, obtained the title of king-maker. 

4. But in the bloody battle of Barnet, Edward prevailed, 
and the brave Warwick was slain. The intrepid Margaret, 
having returned to England, made a last effort for the 
crown, in the desperate battle of Tewkesbury, which proved 
fatal to her hopes. Her son was slain, and she herself 
was taken prisoner ; but was afterwards ransomed by the 
king of France, and in that country she passed the remain- 
der of her life. 

5. Edward, being now secured on the throne, gave him- 
self up to unrestrained indulgence in acts of tyranny, cru- 
elty, and debauchery. He caused his brother, the Duke 
of Clarence, to be impeached, and drowned in a butt of 
Malmsey. — He is described as the handsomest man of bis 
time in England. " The character of this prince," says 
an elegant writer, "is easily summed up: — his good qual- 
ities were courage and beauty ; his bad qualities, every 
vice." 

6. Edward IV. left two sons, the eldest of whom being 
only 13 years of age, was proclaimed king, by the title of 
Edward V. Richard, duke of Gloucester, brother to Ed- 
ward 17., being appointed protector, caused Lonl Hastings 
and other distinguished persons to be executed without 
trial ; seized the crown on the pretence that his nephew 
Edward V., and his brother, the duke of York, were il- 
legitimate ; and procured himself to be proclaimed king, 
by the title of Richard III. After two months he caused 
the young princes to be smothered in the Tower. 

7. The multiplied and detestable crimes of iiJc/m?-J III., 
who waded to the throne th'-ough the blood of his near- 
est relations, found an avenger in the Earl of R'chmond, 
the only surviving heir of the house of Lancaster. The 
armies of the two rivals met at Bosworth, where a desperate 



ENGLANB. 181 

Wttle was fought, in which Richard was defe£;tecl and 
slain, and his rival was crowned on the field by the title 
oi Henrij VII. This battle terminated the long and bloody 
conflicts between the two houses of York and Lancaster. 

8. Richard was a man of talents and courage ; but his 
unbounded ambition led him to perpetrate the most atro- 
cious crimes. He had a harsh and disagreeable counte- 
nance, was crook-backed, and had his left arm withered ; 
so that the deformity of his body corresponded to that of 
his mind. 

SECTION VII. 

Tjie Tudor Family: — Henry Yl\. ; iifeur?/ V III. ; Edward 
VI. ; Mary ; Elizabeth. — From Jl. D. 1485 to 1603. 

1. The hereditary right of Henry VII. to the crown, 
was questionable ; but he strengthened his claim by mar- 
rying Elizabeth., daughter of Edward IV.; and in this way 
the two houses of York and Lancaster were united. Henry 
was the son of Margaret., great-grandaughter of John of 
Gaunt ; and of Edinond Tudor. The sovereigns of the 
house of Tudor were arbitrary in their principles and 
character; but their reign was generally pacific. 

2. The policy of Henry was pacific, and his reign com- 
paratively tranquil ; yet it was disturbed by several plots 
and conspiracies, two of which were of a singular charac- 
ter ; one was the attempt of Lambert Sirnnel^ the son of a 
baker, to counterfeit the person of the earl of Warwick, 
the son of the late duke of Clarence, and the only re- 
maining male heir of the house of York : the other was a 
similar attempt of Perkia Warbeck., the son of a Flemish 
Jew, to counterfeit the duke of York, who had been 
smothered in the Tower, by the order of Richard III. 

3. Both of the adventurers aspired to the crown, and 
met with considerable support from the people. Simnel, 
after being proclaimed king of England and Ireland, at 
Dublin, was taken prisoner, and instead of being executed, 
was made a scullion in the king's kitchen, and afterwards 
promoted to be falconer. Ferkin maintained his cause by 
force of arms for five 3'ears, and was supported by many 
of the nobility ; but being at last taken, he was executed 
a3 a traitor. 

16 



182 EJNGLAND. 

4. Henry VII. was more deficient in the feelings of the 
heart, than in the qualities of the mind. He was prudent 
and sagacious ; but was little susceptible of the social 
and generous affections ; despotic in his government, and 
avaricious in his disposition — the love of money being his 
r.uling passion. By his frugality and arbitrary exactions, 
he Accumulated immense wealth, and is said to have left 
at his death, in ready money, the sum of ^1,800,000, equal 
to ^10,000,000 at present. 

5. His reign was prosperous at home, and honourable 
abroad ; and though not a popular sovereign, he was, per- 
haps, next to Alfred, the most useful prince, that had 
hitherto sat on the throne of England. He enacted many 
wise and salutary laws; promoted industry ; encouraged 
commerce ; reduced to subordination a factious and inso- 
lent aristocracy ; and taught the peaceful arts of civilized 
life to a warlike and turbulent people. 

6. By permitting the nobles to alienate their lands, he 
weakened their power, raised the respectability of the 
lower orders, and gave a mortal wound to the feudal sys- 
tem. He expended ^14,000 in building one ship, named 
" the Great Harry^^'' which may be considered as the be- 
ginning of the English navy ; inasmuch as the government, 
before this period, had no other mode of raising a fleet, 
than by hiring or pressing the vessels of merchants. 

7. No monarch ever succeeded to the throne of England 
with brighter prospects than Henry VIII. Uniting in his 
person tile claims of the two houses of York and Lancaster, 
his title was undisputed : the treasury was well stored, the 
nation at peace, and the state of the country prosperous. 
He was 18 years of age, of beautiful person, accomplished 
manners, frank and open in his disposition, possessed of 
considerable learning, and fine talents ; and was regarded 
by the people with affection and high expectations. 

8. But these fond expectations were wofully disappoint- 
ed. As the character of the king developed itself, he was 
found to be an unprincipled and cruel tyrant, who was to 
be governed by no law, but his own capricious will. His 
government was but little short of a despotism ; and one 
of the greatest wonders respecting it, is the degrading 
servility of the people and parliament, in tamely submit- 
ting to his tyranny, or becoming the passive instruments 



EiNGLAND. 183 

oi' its exercise. He chose for his ministers men of eminent 
talents; but he made them feel the effects of his caprice 
and cruelty. Archbishop Cranmer was the only distin- 
guished one among them, who had the good fortune to 
retain, to the last, his confidence and regard. 

9. By his profusion and expensive pleasures, he soon 
exhausted the treasures which he inherited from his 
father. Though his military operations were not numer- 
ous, yet, in the early part of his reign, he made war 
against Louis XII. of France, invaded the country, and 
gained the battle of the Spiirs^ (so named from the rapid 
flight of the French ;) and his general, the Eari of Surrey, 
gained a bloody victory over the Scols^ at Flodden, where 
James IV., and a great part of his nobility, were slain. 
Henry was also, in some degree, involved in the wars of 
the two great rivals of the age, Charles V. of Germany, 
and Francis I. of France. 

10. Before he arrived at the age of 30, he wrote a book 
against Luther, the Reformer, which pleased the pope so 
much, that he conferred on him the title of " Defender of 
the Faith," a title which his successors have ever since 
retained. 

11. But the most memorable transactions of Henry's 
reign were his matrimonial alliances, and the consequences 
which flowed from them. His first wife was Catharine of 
Arragon, widow of his elder brother Arthur, daughter of 
Ferdinand of Spain, and aunt of Charles V. He had been 
contracted to her at a very early age, by the influence of 
his father ; and after having lived with her about 18 years, 
he professed to feel conscientious scruples respecting the 
lawfulness of the marriage, on account of her having been 
the wife of his brother ; and conceiving a passion for the 
beautiful and accomplished Anne Boleyn, he applied to the 
pope for a divorce. 

12. Having experienced various delays, and imagining 
that his favourite minister, the celebrated Cardinal Wolsey, 
was the chief obstacle in the way of eflecting his object, 
the king resolved on his ruin, and ordered him to be ar- 
rested for high treason. But the haughty cardinal soon 
after fell sick and died, having exclaimed in thg pangs of 
remorse ; " Had I but served God as diligently as I have 
served the king, he would not have given me over in my 
gray hairs." 



184 ENGLAND. 

13. The opinion of various universities, favourable to 
Henry's views, having been obtained, and the pope failing- 
to grant the divorce, the king caused a court to be held 
under Cramner, which pronounced his marriage invalid } 
and lady Anne was soon after crowned queen. The papal 
jurisdiction in England was immediately abolished ; the 
monasteries suppressed ; some alterations made in the 
doctrines and forms of religion ; and the king was declared 
the Supreme Head of the English Church. 

14. In this manner it was that Henry VIII. was the un- 
worthy instrument of bringing about that most important 
event, the introduction of the Reformation into England, 
But though he ceased to be a Roman Catholic, he was far 
from being a Protestant. He arrogated infallibility to 
himself, and caused both Catholics and Protestants to be 
beheaded, who ventured to maintain opinions in opposition 
to his own. The venerable Bishop Fisher and the cele- 
brated Sir Thomas More were beheaded, for refusing to 
acknowledge his supremacy. 

15. In less than three years after his new marriage, the 
capricious tyrant caused Anne Boleyn to be condemned 
and beheaded, in order to gratify a new passion for Jane 
Seymour, whom he married the day after the execution ; 
and who died two days after giving birth to Prince Ed- 
war J. He next married Anne of Cleves, but soon divorced 
her, because he did not find her so handsome as she had 
been represented ; and Cromwell, his able and faithful 
minister, having been instrumental in bringing about this 
joyless marriage, lost the favour of his sovereign, and 
suffered death on the scaffold. Catharine Howard, whom 
he next married, was condemned and executed for adul- 
tery. But Catharine Parr, his sixth wife, had the good 
fortune to survive him. 

16. Henry VIII. left three children, Mary, daughter of 
Catharine of Arragon, Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, 
and Edward, son of Jane Seymour. The last succeeded 
him, with the title^of Edward VI. His reign was distracted 
by the contests of those to whom the affairs of government 
were intrusted, particularly the Duke of Somerset, the pro- 
tector, and his successor, the Duke of JVorthumberland. 
The interests of the Reformation were promoted by Cran- 
mer and other reformers, and the English liturgy vvas 



ENGLAND. 185 

formed ; yet a great part of the people were still attached 
to popery. 

17. Edward, a prince of great hopes and virtues, died 
in his 16th year, deeply lamented. So different was his 
character from that of his father, that he is said never to 
have signed an order for an execution against any person, 
without shedding tears. Just before his death, he had 
been prevailed upon, by the protector, the duke of Nor- 
thumlserland, to bequeath the crown to Jane Grey^ great- 
grandaughter of Henry VII. 

18. Edward was succeeded by his elder sister, Mary, a 
woman whose bigotry, moroseness, tyranny, and cruelty, 
procured for her the title of Bloody ; and who, soon after 
coming to the throne, married Philip II. of Spain. — The 
crown, which had been assigtied by Edward to Jane Grey. 
a young lady of extraordinary virtues and accomplish- 
ments, proved, through the ambition of her relatives, a 
fatal bequest. She had been recently married to Lord 
Guilford Dudley, son of the duke of Northumberland, and, 
by the intrigues of the duke, she was proclaimed queen. 
But she resigned the crown after wearing it ten days, and 
would have gladly returned to private life. The youth 
and innocence of the young couple, (neither of them ex- 
ceeding their 17th year), pleaded strongly in their favour, 
yet they were both condemned and beheaded. 

19. Lady Jane, on the day of her execution, sent a mes- 
sage to her husband, who desired to see her, informing him 
that the tenderness of their last interview would be too much 
for her to bear. " Tell him,"' added she, " that our separa- 
tion will be only for a moment. We shall soon meet each 
other in a place where our affections shall be forever 
united, and where misfortunes will never more disturb our 
eternal felicity." 

20. Mary restored the Catholic religion, and, assisted 
by bishops Gardiner^ Bonner, and others, commenced an 
unrelenting persecution against the Protestants. Some of 
the most eminent martyrs who were burnt at Smithtield 
during her bloody reign, were Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, 
Hooper, Ferrer, and Rogers. By the cruelty of these pro- 
ceedings, the feelings of the people were shocked ; the 
excellent character of the sufferers, and the noble spirit 
which they exhibited in the hour of trial, produced a strong 

16* 



186 ENGLAND. 

sensation in their favour, and rendered the church of 
Rome odious ; so that these barbarities tended to forward, 
rather than to check the progress of the Reformation. 

21. In the last year of Mary's reign the French took 
CaZais, which had been in possession of the English 210 
years. The queen soon after died of vexation at this 
loss, and at being hated by her husband and her subjects. 
She left none to lament her, and there was not even the 
semblance of sorrow for her death. 

22. The accession of Elizabeth to the throne, was hailed 
by the nation with joyful acclamations. Under her au- 
spicious reign, the Protestant religion was protected ; the 
church of England was established in its present form ; 
and the nation rose to a higher state of prosperity than it 
had ever before attained in agriculture, commerce, arts-, 
and literature. This reign, which some have considered 
as the Augustan age of English literature, was illustrated 
by the great names of Hooker^ Bacoi^ and Shakspeare. 

23. A remarkable circumstance in this period of Eng- 
lish history, relates to the repeated and sudden changes 
with respect to religion, in accordance with the viev/s of 
the sovereign and the court. Many of the Protestants 
under Edward, became persecuting Romanists under Mary; 
and under Elizabeth, they were again transformed into 
zealous promoters of the Reformation. Reiigion, it would 
seem, hung so loose upon the greater part, that they were 
equally reridy to conform to popery or protestantism, as 
might best suit their temporal interests. Of 9,000 bene- 
ficed clergymen, the number of those who preferred, on 
the accession of Elizabeth, to quit their preferments rather 
than popery, was less than 200. 

24. Elizabeth is charged with treachery and cruelty in 
her treatment of Mary., Queen of Scots., a woman whose 
extraordinary beauty and misfortunes seem, in the minds 
of many, to have thrown a veil over all the defects of he? 
character. Mary was great-grandaughter of Henry VII., 
and next heir to Elizabeth to the throne of England. She 
had been educated in France as a Catholic, and married, 
when very young to the dauphin, afterwards Francis II. 
She had been persuaded, imprudently, to assume the title 
of queen of England, a circumstance which proved fatal t0 
her peace. 



ENGLAND. 187 

25. On the death of Francis, she returned to Scotland, 
at the age of 18 years. At this period the Reformation, 
by the zealous labours of John Knox, had made great 
progress in that country ; and the people regarded their 
Catholic queen with abhorrence, and looked to her enemy, 
Elizabeth, for support. 

26. Mary married, for her second husband, her cousin 
Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who being not long afterwards 
murdered, she then married the Earl of Both-well, who 
was stigmatized as the murderer of Darnley. She was, at 
length, compelled to resign the crown to her infant son, 
who was proclaimed Jauies VI. ; and her illegitimate 
brother, the Earl of Murray, a friend to the Reformation, 
was appointed regent during the young king's minority. 

27. Encouraged by the plausible professions of Eliza- 
beth, Mary was induced to take refuge in England, ap- 
pealing to the queen as umpire between herself and her 
subjects. After being detained a prisoner 18 years, in 
Fotheriiigay Castle, she was condemned and beheaded in 
one of the rooms of her prison, in the 45th year of her 
age. 

28. Elizabeth Avarmly espoused the cause of the J\e(her- 
lands, in their revolt against the authority of Philip II. of 
Spain ; and her admiral. Sir Francis Drake, had taken 
some of the Spanish possessions in South America. To 
avenge these offences and to subjugate the leading Protest- 
ant power, the Spanish *■' Invincible Armada,'''' a more 
formidable fleet than Europe had ever before witnessed, 
was fitted out for the invasion of England. 

29. This armament consisted of 150 ships, 3,000 pieces 
of cannon, and 27,000 men. It entered the English chan- 
nel in the form of a crescent, extending its two extremities 
to the distance of seven miles. It was met by the English 
fleet, consisting of 108 ships, commanded by those distin- 
guished maritime chiefs, Ho-d>.avd, Drake, Hawkins, and 
Frohisher. Being gradually weakened, and finally over- 
taken by a storm, it suffered an entire defeat. Only 50 
vessels, with 6,000 men, returned to Spain. 

30. The age of Elizabeth was fruitful in men of talents, 
and she was assisted, in her government, by eminent 
statesmen, among whom were Bacon, Burleigh, and J-Val- 
singham. In the early part of her reign, the Earl of Leices- 
ter was her principal favourite; but after his death, the 



138 ENGLANB. 

Earl of Essex, a young nobleman of accomplishments- 
talents, and high spirit, possessed the chief place in her 
affections. The queen and her favourite had many quar- 
rels and reconciliations. 

31. The earl was at last convicted of hi?h treason, and 
beheaded. While under sentence of death, he sent, by 
the countess of Nottingham, to Elizabeth, a ring which 
she had given him, with an assurance that the sight of it, 
in any momentous crisis, wonld recall her tenderness. The 
countess neglected to deliver it; and when on her death- 
bed, sent for the queen to inform her of the fact. Eliza- 
bethj in k frenzy of passion, shook the dying countess, 
exclaiming; — " God may forgive you, but I never can." 
From that moment she sunk into a deep melancholy, re- 
jected all sustenance, aud died in profound grief 

32. Elizabeth was distinguished for her learning ; and 
spoke fluently Greek, Latin, French, and Spanish. She 
possessed extraordinary talents for government, and was 
great as a public character. Her three leading maxims 
of policy were to secure the affections of her subjects, to 
be frugal of her treasures, and to excite dissensions among 
her enemies. In the former part of her reign she was, 
comparatively, moderate and humble ; but afterwards 
haughty and severe. Her disposition was despotic; and 
she, manifested less regard for the liberty, than for the pros- 
perity of the people. Her private character is less to 
be admired, being tarnished with insincerity and cruelty. 
Vain of her beauty, which she only could discover ; de- 
lighted with the praise of her charms, even at the age 
of 65 ; jealous of every female competitor, to a degree 
which the youngest and silliest of her sex might despise ; 
and subject to sallies of anger which no sense of dignity 
could restrain ; she furnishes a remarkable instance of 
great moral weaknesses united with high intellectual su- 
periority. 

SECTION VIII. 

The Stuart Family : — James I. ; Charles I. : — The Com- 
mo7iwealth ; Cromwell : — Charles U.; Jam^ II. ; William 
and Mary; Anne. — From A, D. 1603 to 1714. 

I. Elizabeth, on the approach of death, nominated for 
her successor, the son of her rival Mary, James VI. of 



ENGLAND 189 

Scotland, who was the rightful heir by descent. He took 
the title of James I. of England ; and in him the two 
crowns were united. He was the first of the Stuarts, a 
family whose reign was one continued struggle for power 
between the monarch and the people. 

2. He had scarcely arrived in England when a conspira- 
cy was discovered for subverting the government, and 
placing on the throne his cousin Arabella Stuart. The 
celebrated Sir Walter Raleigh, who had been distinguished 
in the preceding reign, was sentenced to death on an 
accusation of being connected in this plot. He was, how- 
ever, reprieved, cast into prison, and 15 years afterwards 
was cruelly beheaded. 

3. Another conspiracy followed, of a more daring na- 
ture. This was the famous Gunpowder Plot, a design of 
some desperate Catholics to blow up the parliament house, 
and involve in one common destruction the king, lords, 
and commons. Just on the eve of its accomplishment, 
the plot was discovered, and Guy Fowkes was taken with 
matches, for firing the magazine, in his pocket. 

4. It was the characteristic weakness of James to at- 
attach himself to worthless favourites ; such were Carre, 
Earl of Somerset, and Villiers, Duke of Buckingham ; men 
on whom he bestowed his favours with the utmost prodi- 
gality, though they were of profligate character, odious 
to the people, and were possessed of no merit, except 
external beauty and superficial accomplishments. 

5. During the reign of Mary, the Puritans first made their 
appearance ; and in the time of Elizabeth they became, 
in a considerable degree, conspicuous. They were stren- 
uous advocates for freedom in the state, and a more 
thorough reformation in religion. At the accession of 
James, they cherished high hopes that their views would 
meet with more favour, than during the reign of the late 
queen ; inasmuch as he had been educated in Presbyteri- 
anism : but of all persons they were the most disappointed. 
So great was their dissatisfaction, that some of them 
sought refuge, from their restraints and persecutions, in 
the wilds of America, and commenced the settlement of 
JVew England. 

6. The leading characteristic of James was his love of 
arbitrary power, The divine right of kings to govern 
their subjects without control, was his favourite topic in 



190 ENGLAND. 

conversation, and in his speeches to parliament. The 
best part of his character was his pacific disposition ; and 
his reig'n, though ignoble to himself, was, in many respects, 
happy to his people, who were enriched by peace and 
commerce. 

7. In his private character, his morals were far from 
being pure. He possessed considerable ingenuity and a 
good deal of learning, but more pedantry. He blended 
a childish and degrading familiarity so incongruously with 
a ridiculous vanity, insufferable arrogance, and a vulgar 
stateliness, that he reminds us more of some mock king 
in a farce, than a real one on the theatre of history. He 
was excessively fond of flattery, which was dealt out to 
him with an unsparing hand by his bishops and parasites ; 
yet few English sovereigns have been, in reality, less 
respected, or died less lamented. — " He was," says bishop 
Burnet, " the scorn of the age, a mere pedant, without 
true judgment, courage, or steadiness, his reign being a 
continued course of mean practices." 

8. The increase of commerce, and consequent influx of 
wealth ; the diffusion of information ; the little respect 
cherished for the personal character of the king; the dis- 
appointed hopes of the Puritans, the multiplication of 
their numbers, the controversies in which they were en- 
gaged, and the privations to which they were subjected; 
all conspired to diffuse widely the spirit of liberty The 
current of public opinion was now strongly turned to an 
extension of the rights of the people, and to a retrench- 
ment of the power of the sovereign ; and during this reign 
the seeds were sown of that spirit of resistance to despotic 
power, on the part of the people, which, in the next, pro- 
duced a subversion of the monarchy. 

9. Charles I. ascended the throne under favourable cir- 
cumstances : his title was undisputed, and the kingdom 
was in a flo.irishing condition. Many of his subjects, iiow- 
ever, were extremely jealous of their civil and religious 
liberties, and would no longer be governed by precedents 
which had their origin in times of ignorance and slavery. 

.He soon gave proof that he inherited the same arbitrary 
principles with his father, and the same worthless favour- 
ite, Buckingham, retained his influence and authority. — 
He married Henrietta, daughter of Henry IV. of France, 



ENGLAN©. ig^l 

who was a zealous papist, and whose influence over the 
king is regarded as one of the principal causes of his 
calamities. 

10. In the latter part of the reign of James, Charles, 
accompanied by Buckingham, had visited the court of 
Madrid, in order to solicit the hand of the Infanta in 
marriage. The negociution, however, failed, and England 
was involved in war with Spain. Soon after Charles as- 
cended the throne, he was offended with the piirliament 
for refusing to grant him supplies sufficient for carrying 
on this war; and having adopted the resolution to rule 
without their aid, he proceeded to levy money, in various 
ways, independent of their authority. 

11 One of the methods to which he had recourse, was, 
by the tax, called, skip-money. A noble stand was made 
against the payment of this illegal imposition by John 
Hampden, a man, who on account of his high character 
for talents, integrity, and patriotism, possessed the great- 
est influence in parliament and in the nation. But, al- 
though the venal judge decided the cause against him, 
yet he obtained the end for which he sacrifjced his quiet 
and his safety: — the people were roused i'rom their leth- 
argy, and became fully sensible of the danger to which 
their liberties were exposed. 

12. The duke of Buckingham having been assassinated 
by a fanatic, the E^.rl of Svnifford became the chief coun- 
sellor of the king, and Archbishop Laud had the principal 
influence in ecclesiastical afiairs. The current of the 
public sentiment was now running strongly towards Purit- 
anism, in favour of a simpler form of worship. But Laud, 
so far t>om counten:incing this tendency, had overloaded 
the church with new ceremonies, which were disgusting 
to th'i people, and which he enforced with the most ia- 
tolerant zeal. 

13. Not satisfied with attempting to enforce conformity 
in England, the king undertook to establish episcopacy 
al^o in Scotland; and to impose the use of the English 
liturgy u''on the national church. This measure excited 
a strong sensation among all ranks, from the peer to the 
pea;-ant : even the women were not backwa'-d in manifest- 
ing opposition. In one of the churches of Edinburgh, on 
the day when the introduction of the liturgy was first 
attempted, no sooner had the service begun, than an old 



19g ENGLAND. 

woman, impelled by sudden indignation, started up, and 
exclaiming aloud against the supposed mass, threw the 
stool, on which she had been sitting, at the preacher's 
head. The assembly was instantly in confusion, nor could 
the minister finish the service. The people from without 
buri^t open the doors, broke the windows, and rent the air 
with exclamations of " A pope, an antichrist ; stone him, 
stone him ! " . 

14. The prelates were equally unsuccessful, in most 
instances, throughout Scotland, in enforcing the liturgy. 
The JVtttional Covenant^ which was first framed at the 
Reformation, and which renounced episcopacy as well as 
popery, was renewed, and subscribed bj ali ranks ; and 
afterwards a new bond, of similar purport, but stiii more 
determined arid hostile in its spirit, stjled the SAemn 
League and Covenant, was formed and signed by many in 
England as well as in Scotland, who combined together 
for their mutual defence. 

15. After eleven years' intermission, the king found it 
necessary to convoke s. parliament ; but the house of com- 
mons, instead of listening to his demands for supplies, began 
with presenting the public grievances, under three heads j 
those of the broken privileges of parliament, of illegal 
taxes, and of violence done to the cause of religion. 
Charles, perceiv ng he had nothing favourable to hope 
from their deliberations, soon dissolved the assembly. By 
another p rliament, which was not long afterwards assem- 
bled, Siraffard and Laud were sent to the Tower on a 
several charges of endeavouring to subvert the constitution, 
and to introduce arbitrary power and popery. Being im- 
peached for high treason, they were both beheaded. 

16. Charles had already violated the privileges of par- 
liament by causing members to be imprisoned for the part 
which they had taken in de!>ate : but he was, at length, 
betrayed inio a still greater indiscretJon, which contribut- 
ed much towards kindling the flame of civil war. This 
was the impeachment of five leading commoners, and his 
going himself to the house to seize them, leaving 200 
armed men at the door. Having entered the house, he 
ordered the speaker to point them oi;t. " Sir," answered 
the speaker, falling on his knees, " I have neither eyes 
to see, nor tongue to speak in this place, but as the house 
is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am ; and I humbly 



ENGLAND. 193 

ask pardon that I cannot give any other answer to what 
your majesty is pleased to demand of me." 

17. The king withdrew without effecting his object; 
and for this breach of privilege of parliament, he after- 
wards made a humiliating concession. But he had now 
lost the confidence of that body, and they were prepared 
not only to confine his power within legal bounds, but to 
strip him of his constitutional authority. 

18. The standard of civil war was soon erected. The 
cause of the king was supported by a great proportion of 
the landed interest, the bishops, the friends of the estab- 
lished church, and the Catholics : that of the parliament, 
by the city of London and most of the great towns, the 
Puritans, comprising the Presbyterians, Independents, and 
other dissenters. The supporters of the king were styled 
Cavaliers ; those of the parliament Round Heads. 

19. England had been, comparatively, but little engaged 
in war since the accession of Henry VII., and it had but 
few men of military experience. The chief commanders 
in the royal army, besides the king, were the Earl of 
Lindesley, Prince Rupert, and Sir Jacob Astley ; and in the 
parliamentary army, the Earl of Essex, Lord Fairfax, and 
Oliver Cromwell. In the early part of the contest, each 
side lost one of their greatest and best men ; Hampden on 
the part of the parliament, and Lord Falkland on that of 
the king. 

20. In the battles of Edgehill and JVewbiiry^ the royalists 
had the advantage ; but in those of Marston Moor and 
JVaseby, they were entirely defeated. The king soon after 
fell into the hands of his enemies. A court of justice, 
composed of 133 men, well affected towards the parlia- 
ment, was appointed for trying him, and Bradshaw, a 
serjeant-at-law, was made president. He was accused of 
waging war against the parliament and the people, in 
order to establish tyranny, instead of a limited monarchy. 

21 Charles denied the authority of the court, said he 
was responsible to God alone, and refused to plead. The 
sentence of treason was then pronounced against him, 
that his head should be separated from his body on the 
third day. In the mean time he manifested great firmness, 
fortitude, and composure. Having laid his head on the 
block, one of the masked executioners severed it from his 
body at a blow ; the other, holding it up, exclaimed, " Be- 
17 



194 ENGLAND. 

hold the head of a traitor ; " while the sobs and lamenta- 
tions of the spectators were mingled with the acclamations 
of the soldiery. 

22. Charles was possessed of superior talents, and in his 
private character, was amiable, exemplary, and devout ; 
yet his religion was strongly tinctured with bigotry, it 
was his great misfortune to have imbibed, by his educa- 
tion, despotic maxims of government, repugnant to the 
genius of his people, and to be surrounded by wretched 
counsellors. One of his greatest defects, as well as one 
of the principal causes of his ruin, was such a want of 
fidelity to his engagements, that the parliament could 
never confide in his promises. He fell a sacrifice to his 
own arbitrary principles and character, to the influence of 
evil counsels, and to the party frenzy of the times ; and 
his hard fate, and the dignified manner in which he met 
it, have thrown a veil over his errors and misrule. 

23. The proceedings of Charles were at direct variance 
with every principle of civil and religious liberty ; and 
had they been acquiesced in on the part of the people, 
England might still have been a despotism. Mr. Hume, 
the great apologist for the Stuart family, acknowledges 
the services of the Puritans; "by whom alone," accord- 
ing to him, " the precious spark of liberty had been kin- 
dled, and was preserved ; and to whom the English owe 
the whole freedom of their constitution." The intentions 
of those who first resisted the despotic and intolerant 
measures of the king and his court, were doubtless upright 
and patriotic ; but in the progress of the contest, party 
spirit and fanaticism were called into powerful operation ; 
and through their influence, together with the influence 
of ambitious individuals, the parliamentarians became vio- 
lent ; and, in their proceedings, were more ready to con- 
sult passion than reason. 

24. Soon after the king's death, the house of lords was 
abolished as useless by the commons ; it was declared to 
be high treason to acknowledge the son of Charles his 
successor in the throne ; and the government was changed 
from a monarchy to a republic. 

25. After the execution of Laud, Episcopacy had been 
abolished, and Preshyterianism substituted in its stead. But 
the Presbyterian interest soon began to decline, and the 



ENGLAND. 195 

Independedts gained the ascendency ; and the power which 
the parliament had wrested from the king, was, by the 
manag'ement of Crowae//, transferred to the army. Before 
the trial of Charles, measures had been taken to exclude 
the Presbyterians from parliament, and that part of the 
house which remained, distinguished by the ridiculous 
name of the Rump, was composed of Independents under 
the influence of Cromwell. Thus did the Presbyterians, 
who had overturned the church and the tlvrone, fall vic- 
tims to the military power which they had used as the 
instrument for accomplishing their designs. 

26. The parliament of Scotland took no part in the 
trial of the king, and after his death they proclaimed 
Charles II. their sovereign, on condition of his signing the 
Covenant. Cromwell, at the head of 16,000 men, march- 
ed into Scotland, and defeated the royalist covenanters in 
the battle of Dunbar. The royal army, retreating into 
England, was pursued by Cromwell, and in the desperate 
battle of Worcester^ the whole of the troops were killed 
or taken prisoners ; and the victorious commander return- 
ed in triumph to London. 

27. Young Charles escaped with difficulty. He assumed 
the disguise of a peasant, journej'ing in the least frequented 
roads, travelling only in the night, and passing the day in 
obscure cottages, where he was unknown, and where his 
food was generally a little coarse bread and milk. On 
one occasion, he sought safety by concealing himself, for a 
day, in the top of a large oak ; in that precarious situation 
he saw and heard his pursuers, as they passed by, talking 
of him, and expressing a wish that they might discover 
the place of his concealment. After two months of ro- 
mantic adventure, he found an opportunity of escaping to 
France. 

23. The republican parliament passed the famous JVavi' 
gation Act, which, by prohibiti.ig the imi)ortation of all 
foreign merchandise, except in English bottoms, or in 
those of the country producing the commodities, has 
proved the source of the naval superiority of Great Brit- 
ain. This act was the cause of u war between England 
and Holland, which terminated in favour of the former, 
and in which the celebrated admiral Blake distinguishei 
himself, and had, for his antagonists, the great Dutch marl' 
Jime chiefs. Fan Tromp and De Ruyier. 



196 ENGLAND. 

29. The parljament, which had been in session twelve 
years, and known by the name of the Long Parliament^ 
had lost the confidence of the people. It had been sub- 
servient to the views of Cromwell ; but having, at length, 
become jealous of him, it formed the design of reducing 
the army, intending, by that means, to diminish his power. 
Cromwell, perceiving their object, and being secure of 
the Httachment of the army, resolved on seizing the sove- 
reign power. While sitting in a council of officers, on 
being informed of an unfavourable reply of parliament to 
a petition, which they had presented, he rose up on a 
sudden, with an appearance of fury, and turning to major 
Vernon, cried out, that he was compelled to do a thing 
which made the very hairs of his head stand on end. 

30. Taking with him 300 soldiers to the door, he 
speedily entered the house, with marks of violent indig- 
nation in his countenance, and after listening a while to 
the debates, he started up, and began to load the parlia- 
ment with reproaches. Then stamping upon the floor, 
he gave a signal for his soldiers to enter ; and addressing 
himself to the members: "For shame!" said he, "get 
you gone ; give place to honester men. I tell you, you 
are no longer a parliament ; the Lord has done with you ! " 
Having turned out all the members, he ordered the doors 
to be locked. 

31. In this manner CromW'sll seized the reins of govern- 
ment ; but he was willing to give his subjects a parliament, 
not, indeed, elected by their suffrages, but nominated by 
himself. By the advice of his council of officers, he sent 
summonses to 144 persons in England, Scotland, and Ire- 
land, to assemble as the representatives of the nation. 
This body, composed chiefly of the dregs of fanaticism 
and ignorance, was denominated Barbone''s Parliament, 
from a leading member, a leather-seller, whose name, 
given according to the taste of the age, was Praise-God 
Barbone. 

32. Cromwell was now declared Protector of the com- 
monwealth of England, with the title of Highness, to be 
assisted by a council of 21 members. The crown was 
afterwards tendered to him, but he saw fit to decline it. 

33. The government Avhich he had usurped, he ad- 
ministered with unrivalled energy and ability. He granted 
religious toleration, and caused justice to be impartially 



ENGLAND. 197 

and ably administered ; and under the reign of no other 
sovereign were the rights of England more respected 
abroad. But, notwithstanding all his efforts, he never 
rendered himself popular with either the royalists or re- 
publicans ; discontent prevailed ; and he lived in constant 
fear of assassination. 

34. Oliver Cromwell was one of the greatest and most 
extraordinary men, that England has produced. Great as 
a general and a statesman, he rose from obscurity, bj'^ 
the force of his talents, to supreme dominion; and was 
the ablest and most powerful potentate of his time in 
Europe. There is scarcely to be met with, in the annals 
of the world, another man alike conspicuous, and possessed 
of equal merit in his public and private character, who 
has met with less favour from history. This was, indeed, 
likely to be the fact, as his course, which was alike hostile 
to legitimate monarchy and to republican liberty, ren- 
dered him equal!}/ obnoxious to the two leading parties of 
the times — the advocates of the privileges of the people, 
and those of the prerogative of the king. His defec- 
tion from the cause of liberty, and his baseness in sub- 
verting the freedom of his country, proved fatal, at once, 
to his happiness and his fame. The leading defects with 
which he is charged, (exclusive of fanaticism and party 
frenzy, the vices of the age,) were dissimulation and un- 
bounded ambition. In private life, he was irreproachable 
— characterized by puritanical strictness; nor does it ap- 
pear that his moral and devotional habits ever forsook 
him. 

35. " Cromwell was cruel and tyrannical from policy ; 
jnst and temperate from inclination ; perplexed and des- 
pi::able in his discourse ; clear and consummate in his 
designs ; ridiculous in his reveries ; generally respectable 
in his conduct; a steady fr end, a good husband, and a 
kind father ; in a word, he was one of the strangest com- 
pounds of political knavery and private virtue; craft and 
magnanimity ; absurdity and good sense, that we find on 
record in the annals of mankind." 

36. Richard Cromwell succeeded his father as Protector ; 
but being of a quiet, unambitious temper, and feeble tal- 
ents, after a few months, he resigned the office, and retired 

private life. A state of anarchy succeeded, when Monk 
17* 



t98 ENGLAND. 

(afterwards Duke of Albanarle), the military commander 
In Scotland, marched his army into England, and crushed 
the contending factions. A parliament was assembled, 
and Charles 11. was restored to the throne of his father. 

37. The nation, indiscreetly trusting to the general 
professions of Charles II., suffered him to assume the crown 
without imposing on him any conditions ; and his reign, 
and that of James II., exhibit a disgusting repetition of 
struggles similar to those which had occurred, under the 
twa iirst princes of the house of Stuart. The first im- 
pressions with regard to the new king, were favourable ; 
his manners were easy and familiar, but his habits were 
indolent ; and experience soon proved his character to be 
profligate and worthless. 

38. The change in the public sentiment, observable at 
this period, is not a little remarkable. The same people, 
who, but a few years before, were so jealous of liberty, 
and exclaimed so loudly against monarchical government, 
are now exhibited as soliciting, with eagerness, the shackles 
of arbitrary power. High church or tory principles, and 
the slavish doctrines of passive obedience and non-resist- 
ance, now came in vogue. An act of uniformity in re- 
ligion was passed, by which 2,000 Presbyterian ministers 
were deprived of their livings ; and another attempt was 
made to establish episcopacy in Scetland. 

39. The prodigality of Charles kept him always in 
want. Dunkirk^ which had been acquired by Cromwell, 
he sold to the French for ^400,000, which he soon squan- 
dered upon his pleasures. He entered into hostilities with 
the Dutch, which were carried on, for some time, with 
spirit. While this war was raging, London was visited by 
a tremendous plague^ which carried off about 90,000 in- 
habitants ; and was followed, the next year, by a fire, by 
which 13,200 houses were consumed. 

40. In consequence of the unsuccessful issue of the war 
(which was terminated by the peace of Breda'), and of the 
sale of Dunkirk, the government became unpopular, and 
Lord Clarendon, on whom the odium was chiefly cast, was 
banished, and passed the remainder of his life in France. 
After the fall of Clarendon, the government became more 
unprincipled ; and the five ministers, by whom it was 



ENGLAND. 199 

conducted, have been stigmatized by the term of Cabal., 
so called from the initial letters of their names. 

41. The Duke of York, (afterwards James II.) who had 
now the chief influence at court, was an avowed Catholic: 
Charles, so iar as he had any sense of religion, was a 
concealed one, and had the the baseness to receive from 
Louis XIV. of France a pension of .£200,000 a year, for 
the purpose of establishing popery and despotic power in 
England. A general consternation for the safety of the 
Protestant religion and of public liberty prevailed ; and 
the remainder of Charles's reign exhibits an uninterrupted 
series of attacks upon the lives, liberties, and properties 
of his subjects ; and a disgusting scene of part}' intrigues, 
and of plots and conspiracies. 

42. A pretended Popish Plot, disclosed by the infamous 
Titus Oaies^ occasioned an unjust execution of Lord Staf- 
ford, and some other Catholics. Another pretended con- 
spiracy, in favour of reform, was called the Rye-House 
Plot ; in which those eminent patriots. Lord Russell and 
Mgernon Sidney, were accused of being concerned ; and 
on testimony, supposed to be perjured, were condemned 
and beheaded. 

43. 1'he character of the court, as well as that of the 
king, was notorious for its protligacy ; and it had a most 
unhappy influence upon the nation. A general dissolute- 
ness of manners characterized the reign. All appearance 
of devotion, and all regularity of morals were regarded 
as puritanical, and exploded as unfashionable. — Of Charles 
ir, who was a man of wit and good humour, it has been ob- 
served, that he never said a foolish thing, nor did a wise 
-action. 

44. James II., who succeeded his brother Charles, had 
a short and inglorious reign, wh'ch was wholly employed 
in attempts to establish the Catholic religion and despotic 
power. Being impolitic, arbitrary, and bigoted, he was 
the author of his own ruin. On assuming the government, 
he expressed his contempt for the authority of parliament, 
and his determination to exercise an unlimited despotism. 
He made Romish priests and Jesuits his chief counsel- 
lors : and though the Catholics, at this time, composed 
scarcely a hundredth part of the people of England, yet 
he undertook the desperate attempt to set aside the Pro- 



200 ' ENGLAND. 

testant religion, and, instead of it, to establish the popish 
faith. 

45. The Duke of Monmouth^ a natural son of Charles II., 
who, during the preceding reign, had defeated the Scottish 
Covenanters at Boihwell Bridge^ having now excited a re- 
bellion, with a view to seize the crown, was defeated, 
taken prisoner, and beheaded. The most inhuman rigour 
was exercised against those who favoured him. The 
atrocious chief justice Jeffreys, the most noted as a profli- 
gate judge in English history, exercised the most unre- 
lenting cruelty. He gloried in his barbarity, and boasted 
that he had hanged more men than any other judge since 
the time of Wiiliam the Conqueror ; and his bloody career 
was styled by James, with unfeeling jocularity, "Jeffreys' 
campaign." 

46. The efforts of James in favour of popery, were, for 
a considerable time, attended with success. But having 
caused seven his^:ops to be committed to the Tower for 
refusing to read a Declaration to suspend the laws against 
popery, the passive spirit of the nation disappeared, and 
a general indignation was roused. WilLam^ Prince of 
Orange, who had married Mary, the eldest daughter of 
James, was invited over, and landed at Torbay, with an 
army, in order to assume the government. 

47. The principal nobility find officers immediately 
joined his standard, and James, being deserted by the 
people, and even by his own children, escaped to France, 
where he passed the remainder of bis life. A Convention- 
Parliament declared the king's flight an abdication, and 
settled the crown upon WiUiam and Mary. Thjs event is 
styled by British writers the glorious revolution of 1688. 

48. The British constitution now became fixed and deter- 
mined The Protestant succession was secured ; religious 
toleration granted; and Presbyterianism re-established in 
Scotland. A declaration was made fixing the rights of the 
subject, and the prerogative of the king. Some of the 
most important articles are the following: — 1. The king 
cannot suspend the laws or their execution : 2. He can- 
not levy money without the consent of parliament : 3. The 
subjects have a right to petition the crown : 4. A standing 
army cannot be kept in time of peace but with the consent 
of parliament : 5. Elections and parliamentary debates 



ENGLAND. 201 

must be free, and parliaments must be frequently assem- 
bled. 

49. Archbishop Sancroft, seven other bishops, and a 
considerable number of the clergy, looking upon James as 
still their lawful king, refused to take the oath of allegi- 
ance to William, and were deprived of their stations. 
From this circumstance they were styled Kon-jurors^ 
High-Churchmen, and Jeieohites. They held the doctrines 
of passive obedience and the divine rig'ht of kings and 
bishops. 

50. Ireland still adhered to James, and the parliament 
of that country declared William a usurper. Being as- 
sisted by Lmds XIV. of France, James landed with some 
French forces iu Ireland, where he was joined by a large 
army ; but he was defeated by William at the river Boyne^ 
and the country submitted to the new king. A large fleet, 
which Louis XIV. had prepared in favour of James, was 
destroyed by admiral Russell, off Cape la Hogue : and by 
the peace of Ryswick, which followed, the title of William 
to the crown was acknowledged. 

51. William was a man of superior talents, especially 
in war, to which his taste strongly inclined him; and he 
was esteemed one of the greatest commanders of his age. 
He was of a feeble constitution : his private character was 
exemplary ; his whole deportment grave, cold, and re- 
served ; he excelled in the severer, rather than in the 
milder virtues. Mary, his queen, and partner of the 
throne, who died seven years before him, was a woman 
of distinguished excellence. 

52. On the death of William, the crown devolved upon 
.inne, the second daughter of James II., who was married 
to George, prince of Denmark. She was not possessed of 
superior talents, but was respected for her virtues, and 
styled the " Good Queen Anne." Her reign was distin- 
guished not only for military achievements, but also for 
eminent attainments in philosophy and literature ; and is 
sometimes styled the Augustan Age of England. 

53. In the first year of this reign Great Britain, Germany, 
and Holland, in alliance with each other, declared war 
against France. The Duke of Marlborough, one of the 
greatest commanders of modern times, was appointed 
generalissimo of the allied army; and the imperial gen.- 



202 ENGLAND. 

eral was the celebrated Prince Eugene. In this great 
contest the Allies had greatly the advantage, effectually 
checked the ambition and encroachments of Louis XIV., 
and gained the splendid victories of Blenheim, Ramillies, 
Oadenarde, and M.dplaquet. The war was terminated by 
the peace of Utrecht., in 1713. 

54. An important event of this reign was the constitu- 
tional union between England and Scotland, which put a 
final period to the contests which had harassed both coun- 
tries, and included them under one common title of Great 
Britain. 

55. The party names of Whigs and Tories, which are 
still used to designate parties in England, first became 
common in the reign of Charles II. The Whigs were 
advocates for the rights of the people, the Tories favoured 
those of the crown. The accession of William and Mary 
was advocated chiefly by the Whigs. During the reign 
of Anne parties ran high ; the nation was thrown into a 
ferment by the preaching of Dr. Sacheverell, who incul- 
cated the Tory principle of passive obedience ; and towards 
the close of the reign the Tories supplanted the Whigs in 
the queen's favour, and came into power, 

SECTION IX. 

House of Brunswick : — George I. ; George 11. ; George III. ; 
George lY.— From A. D. 1714. 

1. On the death of queen Anne, George L, elector of 
Hanover, succeeded to th." crown, in the' 55th year of his 
age. Before he ascended the throne, he had acquired 
the reputation of an able politician, an experienced gen- 
eral, and a benevolent prince. He was plain in his man- 
ners; was a man of great appUcat'on to business ; and his 
reign was pacific and prosperous Some faults in his 
government were attributed to a venal ministry, and to 
his too great attachment to the subjects whom he had 
left. 

2. The Whigs were strenuous advocates for the acces- 
sion of George, and in return, they received from him 
favour and support, and were restored to power. This 
circumstance alienated and enraged the Tories to such a 
degree, that many of them took part with the Pretender, 
son of James II., who was proclaimed king in Scotland 



ENGLAND. 263 

and made an effort to obtain the crown ; but the rebellion 
was suppressed, and the leaders executed. 

3. A pacific reign, like that of George I., furnishes few 
events of importance in history. One, however, of disas- 
trous consequences occurred, called the South Sea Scheme, 
a base imposture, by which it was proposed to diminish 
the burden of the national debt by lowering the interest. 
It gave a great shock to public credit, and involved thou- 
sands in ruin. 

4. George II. succeeded his father in the 44th year of 
his age. He was an able general, of great personal courage, 
delighted in military parade, and was too fond of war. 
His temper was violent, his talents respectable, but little 
cultivated by education ; and his internal adminstration 
generally equitable and popular. His paitialities in fa- 
vour of his continental dominions are represented as still 
stronger than those of his father, and he has been cen- 
sured for involving Great Britain in expensive wars on 
account of the interests ot the electorate of Hanover. 
The most prominent person in the administration, during 
a considerable portion of the reign of George I., and 
during the former part of that of George II., was Sir 
Robert Walpole, a man whose policy was pacific, and who 
was distinguished for his talents, and not less so for the sys- 
tem of corruption and venality which he practised while 
in office. 

5. The military operations of this reign were extensive 
and numerous ; and the British arms were, for the most 
part, triumphant. After the death of the emperor Charles 

«^V1., in 1740, he was succeeded in his dominions by his 
daughter, the celebrated J\iaria Theresa, who was married 
to Fronds of Lorraine. But Cl<arle$, the elector of Bava- 
ria, attempted to place himself on the thione in her stead. 
This gave rise to a war, which involved the principal 
states of Europe, called the war of the Austrian Succession ; 
during which, the Allies, under George II., defeated the 
French in the battle of Dettingen, and the French, under 
Marshal Saxe, routed the Allies at Fontenoy. Great Britain 
was the principal support of Maria Theresa, and by the 
peace of Mx-la-Chapelle, in 1748, her claim to the throne 
was confirmed. 



204 ENGLAI^r)., 

6. While George II. was absent on the continent, at the 
head of the British army, Charles.^ the young Pretender^ 
assisted by Louis XV. of Frarxe, made an effort to recover 
the throne of his ancestors. Having landed in Scotland, 
he put himself at the head of an army, and defeated the 
royal forces in the battles of Preston-Pans and Falkirk ; 
but was afterwards entirely defeated by the Duke of Cum- 

-herland^ in the decisive battle of Culloden. Thus terminated 
the last effort of the Stuart family to re-ascend the throne, 
which had been forfeited by the most egregious folly, and 
the most flagitious attempts. 

7. In the latter part of this reign, the war between 
Great Britain and France, was renewed, and in its progress, 
the British took Louisburg^ Fort Du Qitesne^ Ticonderoga, 
Crown Point, Niagara, and finally, under the command of 
general Wolfe, they gained possession of the city of Q;/e6ec. 
These successes were followed by the surrender of all 
Canada on the part of the French. During these opera- 
tions in America, the British also made extensive conquests 
injndia. 

8. George III., grandson of George II., was the first king 
of the house of Brunswick that was born in England. He 
commenced his reign at an auspicious period, when the 
arms of Great Britain were triumphant, and the adminis- 
tration able and popular. The war was, not long afterwards, 
brought to a close ; and by the peace of Paris, Canada 
and other territories in North America, were confirmed 
to England. 

9. The elder Pitt, afterwards Lord Chatham, was at the 
head of the administration during the last years of the 
preceding reign ; and in the former part of this, he was 
the most prominent public man in the nation. At this 
period, oppressive measures were adopted by the British^ 
government with regard to the American colonies. These 
Chatham opposed with his powerful eloquence : but they 
were persisted in ; hostilities were commenced ; a decla- 
ration of the independence of the United States was made, 
and finally acknowledged by Great Britain. [See United 
States.] \ 

10. The other most important events in the history of 
England during this reign, are the extension of the British 
dominions in India, the Irish rebellion, and the union 



ENGLAND. 205 

between that country and Great Britain, and the various 
operations of the unexampled war which grew out of the 
French Revolution. 

11. In 1789, the French commotions broke out, con- 
Tulsing- all Europe, and threatening the overthrow of all 
established governments. The government of Great Brit- 
ain, alarmed respecting its own safety, embarked zealously 
in the European war, with a view to check the dissemina- 
tion of democratic principles both at home and abroad. 

12. The system of operations was devised and managed 
under the direction of the younger Pht, who was now at 
the head of the administration. This calamitous war con- 
tinued to convulse the continent for 25 years, and during 
a part of the time Great Britain alone had all Europe ar- 
rayed against her. But after various fluctuations of failure 
and success, she came off victorious, j^et not without an 
immense loss of the blood of her subjects, snd a vast in- 
crease of her national debt. Some of the principal victories 
which the British obtained during this w^\r, were those of 
the JVile and Trafalgar^ by Nelson ; and those of Talavera^ 
Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo^ by Wellington. 

13. The reign of Georo-e III, who died in 1820, was longer 
than that of any other English monarch ; and it will form a 
distinguished period in the history of the kingdom, on ac- 
count of its military events, and the progress of the nation in 
commerce, wealth, and the arts. During the 10 last years of 
his life, he was afflicted with insanity to such a degree, as 
entirely disqualified him for all business, and the Prince of 
Wales acted as Regent. His talents were not brilliant, nor 
were his views, as a statesmen, enlarged ; but his private 
character was amiable and exemplary, and he was much 
respected and beloved by his subjects. — He was suc- 
ceeded by his son, the Prince of Wales, who bears the 
title oi George IV., and whose reign has, hitherto, been 
pacific and prosperous. " 



206 AMERICA. 



AMERICA. 



DxscovKRY AND SETTLEMENT : Columbus / Amcricus ; Cabot, 
4'C. ; Conquest of Mexico and Peru ;-—Cortez^ Pizarro, 
Src—From A. D. 1492 to 1600. 

1. The discovery of America was the greatest achieve- 
ment of the kind ever performed by man ; and, considered 
in connexion with its consequences, it is the greatest event 
of modern times. It served to wake up an unprecedented 
spirit of enterprise : it opened new sources of wealth, and 
exerted a powerful influence on commerce, by greatly in- 
creasing many important articles of trade, and also by 
bringing into general use, many others before unknown : 
by leading to the discovery of the rich mines of this con- 
tinent, it has caused the quantity of the precious metals, in 
circulation throughout the world, to be exceedingly aug- 
mented : it also gave a oew impulse to colonization, and 
prepared the way for the advantages of civilized life, and 
the blessings of Christianity, to be extended over vast re- 
gions, which before were the miserable abodes of bar- 
barism and pagan idolatry. 

2. The man to whose genius and enterprise the world 
is indebted for this discovery, was Christopher Columbus 
of Genoa. He was engaged in a seafaring life from the 
age of 14 ; was well versed in the sciences of geometry, 
astronomy, and cosmography ; and had more correct ideas 
of the figure of the earth, than were common in his time. 
He conceived that, in order to complete the balance of 
the terraqueous globe, another continent necessarily ex- 
isted, which might be reached by sailing to the west from 
Europe ; but he erroneously connected it with India. Being 
persuaded of the truth of his theory, his adventurous spirit 
made him eager to verify it by experiment. 

3. The passage round the Cape of Good Hope not being 
then known, the merchandise of India was brought up the 
Red sca^ and transported across the land to Alexandria, 
To find a passage to China and the East Indies by sea, 
had long been an object of investigation ; and it was in 
quest of a shorter and easier route by the west, that Colum- 
bus undertook his voyage of discovery. The riches of 
the East were the bribe which he held out to the sove- 



AMERICA. 207 

reign or the state, that should enable hitn to execute his 
design. He was singularly qualified for the expedition 
which he had projected ; well versed in naval science ; 
fertile in expedients ; patient and persevering; grave and 
dignified in his deportment ; master of himself, and skilful 
in the government of other men, 

4. He first applied for assistance to his countrymen, 
the Genoese, then to the Portuguese, then to Ferdinand 
of Spain, and then, by means of his brother, Bartholomew, 
to Henry VII. of England ; but all without success ; and he 
had the mortification to be considered a visionary projec- 
tor. At length, after eight years of persevering and anxious 
solicitation and contemptuous neglect, he obtained a gleam 
of royal favour from queen Isabella of Spain. By her 
means he was provided with three small vessels, victualled 
for 12 mouths, and having on board 90 men. The expense 
of building and supplying the whole, was only about ^4,000. 
He was appointed admiral of all the seas which he should 
explore, and governor of all the islands and countries, 
which he should discover and subdue. 

6. With the small and ill appointed fleet which had 
been furnished, he sailed from Palos, in Spain, on the 3d 
, of August, 1492. He steered directly for the Canary 
islands, where having refitted, he proceeded on his voy- 
age, on the 6th of September, passing into seas, which no 
vessel had been known to have ever explored, and with- 
out a chart to direct his course. 

6. He had soon occasion to make use of all his talents 
and address. After having sailed about 200 leagues from 
the Canaries, the variation of the magnetic needle from 
its direction to the polar star, then first observed, excited 
alarm in his own breast, and filled the sailors with terror 
and dismay, to such a degree, that they were ready to 
rise in open mutiny. But, with great presence of mind, 
he made a solution of the phenomenon, which served to 
silence the murmurs of his crew, though it was wholly 
unsatisfactory to himself Having pursued their course 
for 30 days longer, without discovering land, the murmurs 
of the crew again broke out, and with increased violence. 
Columbus made use of encouragement and exhortation ; 
but was compelled to yield so far to their importunity, as 
to propose that if, after proceeding three days more, no 
Jaad were discovered, he would instantly return. 



208 AMERICA. 

7. Strong indications of land had already begun to ap- 
pear; and in the night of the 11th of October, Columbus, 
who was standing on the forecastle, discovered a light 
a-head. The raornicg displayed the joyful sight of land ! 
A hymn of thanksgiving to Almighty God was sung by the 
whole crew, who immediately united in the most ardent 
expressions of admiration for their commander, with ac- 
knowledgments of their rashness and disobedience. 

8. The island first discovered was St. Salvador, or Cat 
Island^ one of the Bahamas. He afterwards discovered 
Cuba and Hayti, or St. Domingo, which he named His- 
paniola, and on which he landed, and left some of his men 
to form a colony. In conformity with the theory which 
he had adopted, he connected these islands with India, 
believing them at no great distance from that unexplored 
region ; and as he had reached them by a western pas- 
sage, he denominated them the West Indies. 

9. Having obtained a quantity of gold and some of the 
natives, he set sail on his return to Spain. During the 
voyagCj a violent tempest arose, which exposed the fleet 
to extreme danger ; and, in order to afford a small chance 
that the world might not lose the benefit of his discovery, 
and that his own name might not go down to posterity as 
a visionary projector, he had the presence of mind to 
write a short account of his voyage, which he wrapped 
in an oiled cloth, and inclosed in a cake of wax ; and put- 
ling this into an empty cask, he committed it to the sea, in 
hopes that it might fall into the hands of some fortunate 
navigator, or be cast ashore. But the storm happily 
abated, and Columbus entered the port, from which he 
had sailed about seven months before, amidst the acclama- 
tions and wonder of the multitude. He proceeded imme- 
diately to the court, where he was received with respect 
and admiration. 

10. Columbus afterwards made a second and a third 
voyage, in the latter of which he discovered, in 1498, the 
Continent of South America ; but his successes and honours 
did not fail to excite fenvy and intrigues against him in 
the court of Spain. In consequence of false accusations, 
he was deprived of the government of Hispaniola, and 
sent home in chains. The captain of the vessel which 
carried him, impressed with the highest veneration for his 
captive, and feeling the deepest regret for the indignity 



AMERICA. 209 

which he suffered, oflfered to release him from his fetters. 
"No," said Columbus, in a burst of generous indignation ; 
" I wear these irons in consequence of an order from their 
majesties, the rulers of Spain. They shall find me as 
obedient to this, as to their other injunctions. By their 
command I have been confined ; and their command alone 
shall set me at liberty." 

11. But he never forgot the unjust and shameful treat- 
ment which he had received. Through the whole of his 
after life, he carried his fetters with him, as a memorial 
of the ingratitude which he had experienced. He hung 
them up in his chamber, and at last gave orders that they 
should be buried with him in his grave. 

12. Upon the arrival of Columbus in Spain, a prisoner 
and in fetters, the indignation of all men was highly ex- 
cited ; and Ferdinand, cold, distant, and haughty as he 
was, felt, for a while, the emotions of shame. But after 
detaining him for a long time, in a fatiguing and vexatious 
attendance, he appointed another person governor of His- 
paniola in his stead. Such was the reward which the 
great discoverer of this western world received, for having 
devised and carried on to a successful issue, one of the 
noblest and most daring enterprises that ever entered into 
the mind of man ; and such is the account which impartial 
history is constrained to give of the justice and gratitude 
of kings ! 

13. Columbus, intent on finding a passage to India by 
the west, afterwards made a fourth voyage, and examined 
the coast of Darien. He here obtained, for a time, an 
astonishing command over the Indians, by predicting an 
eclipse of the moon. After suffering shipwreck, and a 
variety of fortune, he returned to Spain ; and vvorn out 
with fatigue, disappointment, and sorrow, he died at Val- 
ladolkl^ in 1506. in the 60th year of his age. His funeral, 
by the order of Philip, who had recently ascended the 
throne, was extremely magnificent. 

14. But this great man was unjustly deprived of the 
honour of giving his name to this continent by J]mericus 
Vesputius, a native of Florence, who accompanied Ojeda 
in a voyage, in 1499, and discovered a part of the coast 
of South America, the next year after the continent had 
bpen discovered by Columbus. He wrote an account of 
this voyage, claiming the honour of being the first dis- 

18* 



210 AMERICA. 

coverer of the main land ; and from him this continent 
has been named America^ But this act of injustice, how 
much soever it is to be regretted, has done no real injurj 
to the one, or benefit to the other ; for no man, on this 
account, honours the memory of Columbus the less, or 
that of Americus the more. 

15. In 1497, Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, first doubled 
the Cape of Good Hope, and sailed to India. By this, he 
effected what was a leading object with Columbus in his 
enterprise, and what had been, during the preceding 
century, an object of investigation, namely, the discovery 
of a more expeditious and convenient passage to the 
East Indies, than through Egypt. In 15\9, Magellan., a 
Portuguese in the service of Spain, passed the straits 
which bear his name, and launched into the vast ocean, 
which he called Pacific ; but he lost his life at one of the 
Philippine islands : yet his officers proceeded on the voy- 
age, and accomplished, for the first time, the circumnavi- 
gation of the globe. 

16. John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, but an inhabitant 
of Bristol, in England^ received a commission from Henry 
VII., and sailed in the beginning of May, 1497, on a voyage 
of discovery, accompanied by his son Sebastian Cabot ; and 
one or both of them discovered the Continent of North 
America, the year before the mai7i land of South America had 
been discovered by Columbus, and two years before it had 
been seen by Americus. The land first seen, was called Pri- 
ma Vista, which is supposed to have been a part of New- 
foundland. They proceeded further to the north, in search 
of a passage to India ; but finding no appearance of one, they 
tacked about, and sailed as far as Florida. They erected 
crosses along the coast, and took a formal possession of the 
country in behalf of the crown of England. This was the 
foundation of the English claim to North America, though 
no settlements were formed till many years after. 

17. Several years passed away from the time of the 
first discovery of America by Columbus, before any con- 
siderable settlement was formed by the Spaniards, on the 
continent. In 1619. Fernando Coriez, with a fleet of 11 
small vessels, having on board G17 men, sailed from Cuba 
for the invasion of Mexico, and landed at Vera Cruz. As 
fire-arms ivere not yet in general use, only 13 of the men 



AMElilCA. 211 

had muskets ; the rest being armed with cross-bows, 
swords, and spears. Cortez had also 10 small field pieces, 
and 16 horses — the fipst of these animals ever seen in that 
country. 

18. Cortez proceeded rapidly from Vera Cruz to the 
city of Mexico, where he was cordially received by Mon- 
tezuma, the hospitable and unsuspecting' monarch. The 
perfidious Spaniard, however, caused him to be seized in 
his palace. The Mexicans, roused by this treachery, flew 
to arms, and after a sanguinary struggle, the Spaniards 
were expelled from the capital. Montezuma was killed 
in the conflict, and was succeeded by his nephew Guati- 
inozin. 

19. Cortez, undismayed by this reverse, having obtain- 
ed the assistance of a nation of Indians who were tributary 
to the sovereign of Mexico, but desirous to throw off the 
yoke ; and having procured a reinforcement of Spaniards, 
besieged and took the city, together with Guatimozin, 
and became master of the country in 1521. Thus was 
the great empire of Mexico overthrown by a handful of 
daring and unprincipled adventurers. 

20. In 1518, the Spaniards formed a settlement at Pana- 
ma, on the west side of the gulf of Darien. From this place 
several attempts were made to explore the regions of 
South America ; and hence Pizarro sailed on an expedi- 
tion, in 1525, and discovered the rich and flourishing king- 
dom of Peru. He afterwards obtained from the king of 
Spain, Charles V., a commission, as governor of the coun- 
try, and a military force to subdue it ; and for this purpose, 
in 1531, he sailed from Panama, with three small vessels 
and 180 men. 

21. With this small band he invaded the country, march- 
ed to the residence of the inca or king, Atahalipa, and 
having invited him to a friendly interview, and attempted 
to persuade him to embrace the Christian religion, he 
seized him as a prisoner; and by his order, his men fell 
upon the defenceless and unresisting attendants of the 
monarch, and slew upwards of 4,000 of them. 

22. The Peruvian monarch, in order to procure his 
release, engaged to fill, for Pizarro, the room in which 
he was confined, which was 22 ieet by 17, with vessels of 
gold and silver, as high as he could reach. The engage- 
ment was fulfilled on the part of the unhappy monarch. 



212 AMERICA. 

The treasure, which was collected from various parts of 
the empire, amounted, in value, to upwards of ^1,50U,000, 
which was divided among the conquerors But the per- 
fidious Spaniard still held the inca a prisoner ; and Mmugro 
having joined Pizarro with a reinforcement, they brought 
the monarch to trial ; and, on a charge of being a usurper 
and an idolater, condemned and executed him ! 

23. The Spanish chiefs not long after quarrelled with 
each other, and a civil war ensued. Almagro was taken 
prisoner, condemned, and executed ; and soon after Pizarro 
was assassinated. The Indians profited by these conten- 
tions ; and, under their new inca, Huanca Capac^ rose 
against the Spaniards ; but they were at last subdued, and 
Peru became a province of Spain. 

24. At the time of the invasion of the Spaniards, the 
Peruvians and Mexicans had made considerable progress 
towards civilization ; much more than the rest of the 
Indians. They understood the arts of architecture, sculp- 
ture, mining, and working the precious metals ; cultivated 
their land, were clothed, and had a regular system of 
government, and a code of civil and religious laws. The 
Peruvians had the superiority in architecture^ and pos- 
sessed some magnificent palaces and temples. They 
worshipped the sun as the supreme deity, and their re- 
ligion had few of those sanguinary traits, which were 
characteristic of that of the Mexicans. 

25. In 1524, Francis I. of France, willing to share a 
part of the new world with his neighbours, commissioned 
Verrazano on a voyage of discovery. This navigator ex- 
plored a great part of the coast of North America. Ten 
years afterwards, James Cariier set out on a similar ex- 
pedition, sailed up the gulf of St. Lawrence, took posses- 
sion of the country in the name of the king, and named 
it JVew France ; but the name was afterwards changed to 
Canada. 

26. In 1584, the celebrated Sir V/ alter Raleigh., under a 
commission from queen Elizabeth., to discover, occupy, and 
govern " remote, heathen, and barbarous countries," not 
previously possessed by any Christian prince or peopl^^ 
arrived in America, entered Pamlico sound, and proceed- 
ed to Roanoke island, near the mouth of Albemarle 
sound, and took possession of the country. On his retura 



AMERICA. 213 

to England, he gave such a splendid description of the 
beauty and fertility of the country, that Elizabeth, de- 
lighted with occupying so fine a territory, gave it the 
name of Virginia^ as a memorial that this happy discovery 
was made during the reign of a virgin queen. 

27. Several attempts were made to form settlements in 
Virginia by Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Francis Drake, and 
Sir Richard GrenviUe, but they proved unsuccessful ; and 
part of the colonists were carried back to England, part 
of them perished, and part were destroyed by the Indians. 

28. It was the practice of Europeans to take possession 
of the parts of America which they visited, by the pre- 
tended right of discovery. The original inhabitants were 
treated as if they had no rights, and were no more owners 
of the soil, than the beasts of the forest. This example 
was set by Columbus himself. He landed upon St. Sal- 
vador, the first island discovered, in a gorgeous dress, 
with a drawn sword in his hand, and the royal standard 
displayed, and took possession of the island for the crown 
of Castile and Leon ; and in accordance with this prac- 
tice, it was inscribed on his tomb, that to this crown he 
" had given a new world." 

29. The pope, in accordance with principles that were 
acted upon in an age of ignorance and superstition, grant- 
ed to the sovereigns of Spain the countries discovered by 
their subjects in the new world. The propagation of 
Christianity was held out as the chief reason for taking 
possession of America; and the promotion of a religion 
which breathes " peace on earth and good will towards 
men," was made the pretext for every species of injustice, 
cruelty, bloodshed, and slavery, which the defenceless 
inhabitants of America were destined to experience from 
Cortez, Pizarro, and other unprincipled invaders. 

, 30. The Spaniards who fii'st came to America, were 
stimulated by the desire and expectation of finding the 
precious metals, gold and silver. So powerful was this 
passion for gold, that the first adventurers encountered 
every possible hardship and danger in search of it, and 
sacrificed millions of the wretched natives, whom they 
compelled to work in the mines. The unfortunate Indians 
were subjected to the tneta, a kind of annual conscription, 
by which they were forced to perform, in the mines, for 



214 AMERICA. 

their avaricious task-masters, a service so hard and un- 
healthy, that it proved fatal to as many as ahout one third 
of every conscription. 

31. The discovery and settlement of America also gave 
rise to that foul stigma on Christendom, the African slave- 
trade, which was commenced soon after the first colony 
was established, and has been continued to the present 
time. By this infamous traffic, millions of the unhappy 
Africans have been torn from their native country, and 
doomed to a miserable servitude. 



UNITED STATES. 215 

THE UNITED STATES.* 

SECTION I. 

Settlement and Early History of the Colonies : — Virginia ; 
Mew York ; Cohnies of JVew England ; Indian Wars ; 
Maryland ; Pennsylvania. — From A. D. 1607 to 1682. 

1. The vanity of nations, like that of families, inclines 
them to lay claim to a high antiquity; and the obscurity 
in which their early history is, in most inst mces, involved, 
affords them an opportunity to indulge this propensity. 
But with regard to the United States, circumstances are 
different. The vanity of the people of this country in- 
clines them to dwell upon their recent origin, and their 
rapid growth ; and the promise which these afford of 
future greatness. Of all independent nations of any im- 
portance, now existing, this has had the most recent 
origin, and its early history is the best known : nor do the 
annals of the world afford another instance of a nation 
rising, in so short a space of time from its tirst settlement, 
to an equal degree of power and freedom. 

2. Various circumstances have concurred to promote 
the rapid increase in population and wealth, and the pro- 
gress of society, which have been witnessed in this coun- 
try. The first settlers were emigrants from countries 
advanced in civilization, and they brought with them the 
arts of civilized life. A great portion of them were 
men distinguished for intelligence and enterprise, and 
were strenuous advocates for civil and religious liberty ; 
and at the first foundation of their settlements, they paid 
particular attention to the promotion of education. A vast 
field of enterprise has been constantly presented before 
them, with ample rewards to industry. The means of 
subsistence have been abundant and easily obtained ; and 
extensive tracts of fertile and unoccupied lands, suitable 
for new settlements, have always been procurable, on 

* The national existence of the United States, piopeily so called, com- 
menced July 4th, 1776. Before that period, the inhabitants were in a state 
of colonial dependence on Great Britain, and were styled the British 
Colonies in America. Louisiana, which was formerly a French colony, 
and Florida, formerly a Spanish one, have since been annexed to the 
United States. 



2 16 WNITED STATES. 

moderate terms. The political and commercial relations 
of the inhabitants have connected them with the most 
enlightened nations in the world ; and have aflforded them 
the means of being acquainted with the progress of liter- 
ature and science, and with the various inaprovements in 
the arts of civilized life. 

3. The colonization of North America originated either 
in religious persecution, carried on in England against the 
Puritans and other denominations of Christians, or in 
visionary schemes of adventurers, who set out for the new 
world in quest of settlements, and in pursuit of gain. It 
was the former cause which peopled the colonies of JVew 
England ; and it was to the latter to which the colonies 
of Virginia and JVew York owed their origin. These may 
be considered as the original or parent colonies. 

4. They struggled long with the hardships and difficul- 
ties incident to all new establishments on barbarous shores, 
remote from civilized society, and from the means of pro- 
curing aid in supplying their wants, and in protecting 
themselves against the hostilities to which they were ex- 
posed. They were, at times, reduced to great extremities 
by sickness, disease, and want, and by the attacks and 
depredations of the Indians, insomuch that, in some in- 
stances, it was resolved to abandon the settlement of the 
country as impracticable. All these impediments, how- 
ever, being gradually overcome, by perseverance, industry, 
and enterprise, the colonies at last began to flourish, and 
to increase both in wealth and population. 

5. The first grant from the crown of England, under 
which effectual settlements were made in North America, 
was dated April 10, 1506. By this charter all the country 
in America, between Lat. 34° and 45° N., was called Vir- 
ginia. But by this charter two companies were coastituted ; 
one called the London Company, the other the Plymouth 
Company. To the former was assigned the territory be- 
tween Lat. 34"" and 41° N., called South Virginia ; to the 
latter, the part of the territory lying to the north, called 
North Virginia. 

6. Some unsuccessful attempts to form a settlement in 
Virginia before this ch.irler was granted, have been al- 
ready mentioned. The first effeclu-I attempt was made in 
1607, by a company oi 105 adventurers, who came in a 
vessel commanded by Captain Newport. They sailed up 



UNITED- STATES. 217 

the Powhatan or James River^ built a fort, and commenced 
a town, which, in honour of king James, they called James- 
town. The government of the colony was, at first, ad- 
ministered by a council of seven persons, with a president 
chosen from among their number. The name of the first 
president was Wingfield : but the most distinguished 
member of the council was Captain John Smith, who 
was the second year chosen president, and who has been 
styled the Father of the colony. He was a man of un- 
daunted courage, ti romantic disposition, and an ardent 
spirit of enterprise ; and to his superior talents the com- 
pany were greatly indebted for their success. 

7. The colonists were soon involved in contests with 
the Indians, whose hostilities against the English were not 
unprovoked, as they had been previously treated by them 
with cruelty. In 1585, Sir Richard Grenville bui'nt a 
nvhole Indian town, and destroyed their corn, in revenge 
for their stealing a silver cup ; and Mr. Lane, the leader 
of the adventurers, left by Sir Richard, slew a sachem, 
and killed and took captive several Indians. 

8. The year in which the settlement was commenced, 
an accident happened to Captain Smith, which lent to his 
history the attraction of romance. While engaged in 
hunting, he was taken prisoner by a body of 200 Indians ; 
but he so charmed them by his arts and his valour, that 
they released him. Soon afterwards he was again taken 
by another party of 300, who carried him in triumph 
before Powhatan, the greatest chief in the region. The 
sentence of death was pronounced upon him ; his head 
was placed on a stone, and the savages were about to beat 
out his brains, when Pocahontas, the favourite daughter of 
the chief, who was only about 12 years of age, after 
having in vain implored mercy for him, rushed forward, 
and placing her head upon that of the captive, appeared 
determined to share his fate. Powhatan relented, and set 
the prisoner free. 

9. Two years afterwards, (1609) Pocahontas gave in- 
formation to captain Smith of a plot formed by the Indians 
for the destruction of the colony, which was, by this 
means, prevented. This extrao. dinary Indian female was 
afterwards married to Mr. Rolfe, a respectable English 
planter ; their nuptials were celebrated with great pomp ; 
and Pocahontas was highlv useful in preserving peace 

19 



218 UNITED STATES. 

between the colonists and Indians. She accompanied her 
husband to England ; was instructed in the Christian re- 
ligion, and baptized. She died soon after her return to 
America, at the age of about 22, leaving one son, from 
whom are sprung some of the most respectable families 
in Virginia. 

10. During the first year, the colonists suffered severely 
by the scarcity and badness of provisions ; diseases were 
in consequence introduced, which, in a few months, swept 
away one half of their number. But others were added 
by new arrivals, so that, at the end of the year, they 
amounted to 200. 

11. In the latter part of the year 1609, captain Smith, 
at once the shield and sword of the colony, returned to 
England ; soon after his departure, the company was re- 
duced to the greatest extremities. A party of 30 men, 
under Captain Ratcliffe^ were all slain by the Indians ; 
and in consequence of a waste of provisions, a most dis- 
tressing famine prevailed, which was known for many 
years afterwards, by the name of The starving time. So 
dreadful was its effect, that in the space of six months 
the colonists were reduced from nearly 500 to 60. This 
small remainder resolved to abandon the settlement, and 
return to England ; and for this purpose, they had actually 
embarked ; but meeting with Lord Delaware, who had 
been appointed governor, under a new charter, with 150 
men, and a large supply of provisions, they were induced 
to remain ; and the affairs of the company soon began to 
assume a more auspicious appearance. 

12. At the expiration of 12 years from the first settle- 
ment, there remained only about 600 persons ; but during 
the year 1619, the number was increased by the arrival 
of 11 ships, bringing 1216 new settlers. The planters 
being mostly destitute of families, an expedient was de- 
vised for supplying them with wives ; and for this purpose, 
in the years 1620 and 1621, 150 unmarried females, 
" young and uncorrupt," were sent over from England, to 
be sold to such as were inclined to purchase. The price 
of a wife, at first, was 100 pounds of tobacco ; but as the 
number for sale decreased, the price was raised to 160 
pounds ; the tobacco being valued at three shillings a 
pound. About the same time, 30 negroes were carried to 
Virginia in a Dutch vessel, and sold for slaves ; here 
commenced the unhappy system of slavery. 



UiNITED STATES. 219 

13. The colonists having turned their attention to 
agriculture, and their numbers being increased yearly by 
the arrival of new emigrants, began to enjoy a degree of 
prosperity, when, in 1622, they experienced a stroke 
which came near proving fatal. The successor of Pow- 
hatan concerted a plan for the destruction of the settle- 
ment; and in so artful a manner was the plot devised, 
that it would have been effectually accomplished, if the 
colonists had not been informed of it, a few hours before 
the time appointed for its execution. The Indians, not- 
withstanding, succeeded in putting to death, almost instan- 
taneously, 347 persons. A war of extermination followed 
this massacre ; and not long afterwards, another distressing 
famine. But these losses were soon repaired by new 
arrivals. 

14. In 1639, Sir William Berkley, a man of superior 
talents, was appointed governor; and during his adminis- 
tration, which lasted nearly forty years, the colony was 
generally prosperous. It suffered, however, considerably 
by restrictions imposed upon its trade by the English 
government, which occasioned discontents ; and which, in 
1676, near the end of Berkley's administration, gave rise 
to an insurrection, memorable in the history of Virginia, 
and known by the name of Bacon's Rebellion, so called 
from its leader. Many parts of the colony were given up 
to pillage, Jamestown was burnt, and all the horrors of a 
civil war were felt for a time, till at last the rebellion 
was terminated by the death of Bacon. 

15. The population, in 1660, amounted to about 30,000, 
and in the 28 succeeding years the number was doubled. 
The first adventurers came out with the hope of acquir- 
ing wealth by the discovery of the precious metals ; and 
the ships in which they arrived, were sent back, one of 
them loaded by the miners with a glittering earth, which' 
they vainly hoped contained gold ; the other, loaded with 
cedar. In about 1616, the cultivation of tobacco was com- 
menced; it soon became the chief object of attention with 
the colonists, and constituted the principal part of their 
property. It formed the medium of trade, and was received 
by the government in the payment of taxes. 

16. In 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the ser- 
yice of the Dutch, on a voyage in quest of a north-west 



220 UNITED STATES. 

passage to India, discovered the noble river which bears 
his name. The first permanent settlements were made 
by Dutch adventurers, who erected two forts, in or about 
the year 1614, one at Atbany^ the other on Manhattan 
island, where the city of JVew York now stands. The 
country was called JVew Netherlands ; and the settlement 
on Blanhattan was named New Amsterdam^ which names 
they retained till the conquest of the country by the 
English. 

17. While in the possession of the Sutch, the govern- 
ment of the colony was administered by the three succes- 
sive governors, viz. Van Twiller, Kieft, and Stuyvesant. 
The extension of the English settlements gave rise to 
misunderstandings, and the Dutch governors were engaged 
in a series of disputes and contests. In 1664, Charles II. 
of England, being then at war with the Dutch, granted the 
country to his brother the duke of York ; governor Stuy- 
vesant was compelled to capitulate to an English force, 
under Col. Nicholls ; the whole territory became subject 
to the British crown, and in honour of the duke, the 
country and city were named New York. 

18. The Plymouth Company, to whom the country of 
North Virginia was assigned, commenced a small settle- 
ment on the river Sagadahoc or Kennebec, in 1607, the 
same year in which Jamestown was founded ; but it was 
soon abandoned. In 1614, Captain Smith, having visited 
the country, and examined its shores, harbours, &c., on 
his return to England, constructed a map of it, which he 
presented to prince Charles, who changed its name from 
North Virginia to New England; and a patent was granted, 
by king James, in 1620, to the Duke of Lenox, Fernando 
Gorges, and others, styled " the Council of Plymouth in the 
county of Devon, for settling and governing New England." 
This patent granted to them the country extending from 
Lat. 40° to 48"^ N. ; and was the foundation of the subse- 
quent grants of the several parts of the territory. 

19. During the year in which this patent was granted, 
the first permanent settlement was commenced in New 
England at Plymouth, in Massachusetts, by 101 Puritans, a 
class of dissenters from the church of England, who were 
now beginning to become numerous, and who were called 
Puritans, because they were desirous of a purer form of 
discipline and worship. This small colonly formed a part 



UNITED STATES. 221 

of the congregation of Mr. John Robinson, who is regarded 
as the founder of the denomination of Independents or 
Congregationalists. Being driven from England by perse- 
cution, several years before, the congregation, together 
with their minister, had fled to Holland ; but a part of 
thera were, at length, induced to seek an asylum, where 
they might enjoy religious liberty, in the wilds of America. 
The principle of religious toleration was not, at this 
period, understood or practised by any denomination of 
Christians. The Puritans were severely persecuted by 
the church of England ; but their own principles, also, 
were intolerant ; and in their turn, they persecuted those 
who differed from them. 

20. This colony arrived on the coast in November. As 
they had not determined on a place for their settlement, 
parties were despatched to explore the country, who, 
after incredible suffering from the severity of the weather, 
found a harbour. Here they landed December 22d, 1620, 
and began to build a town, which they called Plymoiith, 
from the name uf the town which they last left in Eng- 
land. 

21. The difficulties and sufferings which they had to 
encounter, were sufficient to dishearten men of ordinary 
resolution. Cast upon an unknown and barbarous coast, 
in a severe climate, and at an inclement season, worn 
down with their long voyage, excessive fatigue, the se- 
verity of the weather, and the want of comfortable pro- 
visions and habitations, they were, soon after ther arrival, 
visited with distressing sickness, and in three months, 
reduced to about one half of their original number. The 
sickness was so general that, at some times, there Avere 
only 6 or 7 well persons in the company. 

22. They instituted a republican form of government, 
and chose Mr. Carver for their first governor, who, dying 
in 1621, was succeeded by Mr. Bradford. The governor, 
who was chosen annually, had at first but one assistant, 
afterwards five, and then again increased to seven. On 
the opening of the spring they sowed barley and peas, 
which produced but an indifferent crop. The}' were as- 
sisted in planting and dressing Indian corn or maize, which 
they had never before seen, by Squanio., a friendly Indian ; 
this aflorded them a great part of their subsistence ; and 
it has ever since been a staple production of the country. 

19* 



222 UNITED STATES-. 

For several years the whole property of the settlers vva« 
held in common, 

23. In order to protect themselves against the hostilities 
of the Indians, they formed a military organization, and 
Miles Standish was chosea their captain. — In March, 1621, 
they were visited by Samoset, a sagamore or petty sachem, 
who addressed them with the friendly salutation of " Wel- 
come, Englishmen ; Welcome, Englishmen." From him 
they obtained important information respecting the coun- 
try, and learned that, not long before, a mortal pestilence 
had swept off almost all the Indians in the vicinity. By his 
assistance, they entered into a treaty of peace and friendship 
with Masassoit, sachem of the Wampanoags, who was the 
most powerful Indian chief in the region, and from whom 
the name of Massachusetts is derived. This treaty, which 
was of great importance to the colony, was strictly ob- 
served till the commencement of Philip's war, a period of 
54 years. 

24. During subsequent years, there were numerous 
arrivals of other persons from England, whose character 
and views were similar to those of the first settlers at 
Plymouth. In 1628, the foundation was laid of the colony 
o[ MassricJiusetts Bay^ by a company of adventurers under 
John Endicot, who formed a settlement at JYaumkeog^ now 
Salem: and in 1635, 1500 persons under John Winthrop, 
who was appointed governor, arrived at Charlestown^ and 
soon afterwards commenced the settlement of Boston and 
other towns in the vicinity. — The colonies of Connecticut^ 
A''ew Haven, and Rhode Island^ were soon afterwards com- 
menced ; and in the space of .20 years, the settlements 
were widely extended in v;^rious parts of New England. 

25. As the quiet enjoyment of religious liberty was the 
leading cause of the formation of these settlements, the 
founders of them were particularly solicitous with regard 
1o the support and encouragement of religion. Among 
the early settlers, there were many men of talents and 
liberal education ; and a wilderness has probably never 
been planted by a body of men, who were more mindful 
of the interests of learning, or more attentive to the es- 
tablishment of schools. In ten years after the first set- 
tlement of Massachusetts Bay, a college was founded at 
Cambridge. 

26. The colonists were possessed of many excellent 



UNITED STATES. 223 

traits of character. Their enterprise and industry, their 
love of liberty, their attention to education, their morality 
and piety, entitle them to respect and admiration. They 
were not, however, without faults, some of which were 
vices of the age, others belonged more particularly to 
themselves. 

27. To those who differed from them in religious opin- 
ions, their views were narrow and intolerant. In some 
instances it was enacted, that none except members of the 
church should have a right to vote at elections, or should 
be eligible to any office. Their rigid principles also 
appear in the severity with which they punished many 
offences, which are not now considered as properly coming 
under the cognizance of the civil law. The close in- 
spection which they practised with regard to every man's 
principles and conduct, secured for many years very strict 
morals, and great unii'ormit}' of doctrines. But it was not 
possible to pi'event dffi;rences of opinion ; and when these 
arose, the severity with which those were treated who 
avowed unpopular sentiments, occasioned many heart- 
burnings and mutual reproaches. 

28. The colonists landed in the country without having- 
obtained the consent of the natives ; yet the principle 
upon which they proceeded was, before taking possession 
of the lands, to procure them by a regular purchase of 
the Indians, who were considered as the rightful owners of 
the soil. They were very far from imitating the exam- 
ples of Coriez and Pizarro. Few instances, indeed, can 
be named of settlements being formed among savages, in 
which the natives were treated with more equity or 
humanity. Yet, from the treatment which the Indians in 
America had generally received from European adven- 
turers, they had too much reason to distrust the friendly 
dispositions of white men; and it must be acknowledged 
that the New England colonists, in their proceedings with 
regard to this injured people, were not always pacific or 
just. 

29. In the third year after the formation of the settle- 
ment at Plymouth, Captain Standish, at the head of a small 
party, killed a number of Indians who had manifested 
hostile intentions. When an account of this transaction 
was sent to Mr. Rcbiiison., in Holland, in his next letter to 



224 ' UNlTEt) STATES. 

the governor, he exclaimed, in a manner that does honour 
to his feelings, " Oh that you had converted some, before 
you had killed any ! " The settlers at Plymouth and in 
Massachusetts Bay, however, had but little trouble with the 
Indians for many years. But the colony of Connecticut, in 
1637, two years after it was first planted, was engaged in 
a severe contest with the Fequots, a warlike tribe, inhabit- 
ing a district now forming the south-east part of that state. 
The Pequots had previously made depredations on the 
infant settlement, and killed several individuals- The 
Indians were entirely defeated by the colonists, under 
Captain Masori, with the loss of between 600 and 700 in 
killed and taken prisoners, being about two thirds of their 
whole number ; 70 of their wigwams were also burnt ; 
while the English lost only two men. 

30. Not long after this contest, the colonists had strong 
apprehensions of a general combination of the Indians 
for extirpating them ; the proceedings of the Dutch also 
created alarm. In order, therefore, to promote their se- 
curity and welfare, the four colonies of Massachusetts 
Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, in 1643, 
united in a confederacy, by the name of the United Colo- 
nies of JYew England. Each one elected two delegates, who 
met annually, or oftener if necessary. This union, which 
subsisted a little more than 40 years, till the colonies were 
deprived of their charters by James II., was of great ser- 
vice in promoting harmony among themselves, and in- 
creasing their means of defence. In it we may see the 
germ of that grand confederacy which led to American 
Independence. 

31. The most general and destructive Indian war in 
which the colonies were ever involved, took place in 
1675 and 1676, with Philip, king or sachem of the V/am- 
panoags, and grandson and successor of Masussoit, whose 
principal residence was at Mount Hope, in Rhode Island. 
He was a man of great talents, and undaunted courage, 
a shrewd politician and a great warrior ; the most for- 
midable enemy that the colonists had ever known. 

32. He was at the head of an extensive combination of 
Indian tribes, who had resolved on the total destruction 
of the colonies. Perceiving the settlements extending in 
every direction, they determined to make one great and 
combined etfort, to avoid the loss of their hunting grounds, 
their inheritance, their liberty and independence. 



UNITED STATES. 225 

33. A more immediate cause of the war was this ; viz. 
Sausaman^ a Christian Indian, gave information to the col- 
onists of the plot which had been formed ag-ainst them, for 
which three Indians, at the instigation of Philip, murdered 
him. The murderers were tried and executed by the 
English. In order to avenge their death, Philip soon 
commenced his hostile attacks, and by his agents, drew 
into the contest most of the tribes in New England. 

34. The Indians had now acquired, in some degree, 
the use of fire-arms. Hostilities were conducted with 
great spirit and energy on both sides, and with the usual 
ferocity of savage warfare. The greatest battle during 
this contest, is known by the name of the Swamp Eighty 
which took place in December, 1675, in the Narraganset 
country, at the Indian fortress, situated in a large swamp. 
The English, who were commanded Josiah Winslow^ 
governor of Plymouth, obtained a great victory, yet with 
the loss of 230 men in killed and wounded ; and among 
their slain, were six brave captains. About 1,000 of the 
Indians are supposed to have perished, besides many 
women and children ; and 500 or 600 of their wigwams 
were burnt. 

35. The Indians never entirely recovered from the 
effect of this defeat. They were not, however, subdued, 
but continued their depredations by massacring the in- 
habitants, and burning the towns. At length, in August, 
1676, the great warrior Philip was slain by a party under 
the famous Captain Church. This was a fatal stroke to 
the power of the Indians, and excited the liveliest joy 
and exultation in the colonies. The hostile Indians soon 
afterwards generally submitted, or retreated from the 
country. After the termination of this war, the principal 
sufferings which the New England colonies endured from 
the hostilities of the Indians, took place during the wars 
with the French, who employed the savages as aux- 
iliaries. 

36. This war afflicted almost every family in New 
England with the most painful privations. The whole 
English population was computed, at this time, to amount 
to about 60,000; of which nearly 600 men, comprising a 
considerable part of strength of the country, fell during 
the war, besides many women and children : and others 
Were led into a miserable captivity. About 600 buildings, 



226 UNITED STATES. 

mostly dwelling-houses, were consumed, 12 or 13 towns 
were destroyed, many others damaged, and many cattle 
killed. The country was in deep mourning, thnre being 
scarcely a family or an individual, who had not lost either 
a relative or a friend. 

37. The founder of Maryland was Sir George Calvert, 
Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, and an eminent states- 
man, who had been secretary to James I. He first visited 
Virginia, with a view to form a settlement of Catholics ; 
but meeting there with an unwelcome reception, he fixed 
his attention on the territory to the north of the Potomac, 
and obtained a grant of it from Charles I. From the 
queen of Charles, Henrietta Maria, the country was named 
Maryland. But before the patent was completed, Sir 
George died, and the grant was given to his eldest son, 
Cecilius, who succeeded to his titles. 

38. Leonard Calvert, brother to Cecilius, was appointed 
the first governor; and he, together with about 200 per- 
sons, commenced the settlement of the town of .Si. Mar-ifs, 
in 1634. The leading features in the policy adopted in 
this colony, do honour to the founders. Universal tolera- 
tion of religion was established, and a system of equity 
and humanity was practised with regard to the Indian 
tribes. 

39. In 1681, the celebrated William Penn obtained of 
Charles II. a grant of the tract of country, afterwards 
named from him, Pennsylvania. It was granted to him in 
consideration of debts due from the crown of England for 
services performed by his father, admiral Penn.' In 1682, 
he arrived in the country, accompanied by about 2,000 
associates, who were, most of them, like himself, of the 
denomination of Q akers ; and in the next year he laid 
out the plan of the city of Philadelphia. 

40. This great man and wise legislator, made civil and 
religious liberty the, basis of all his institutions. Christians 
of all denominations might not only live unmolested, but 
have a share in the government. In his intercourse with 
the Indians, he was governed by the strictest principles of 
equity and humanity, treating them as men and brethren, 
possessing the same rights as white men. Soon after his 
arrival, he summoned them to a council, and obtained of 



UNITED STATES. 227 

them, by fair purchase, a cession of as much land as his 
exigencies required. The same course was pursued by 
his followers ; the treaties were preserved inviolate on 
both sides ; and a good understanding remained uninter- 
rupted, for more than 70 years. It was seen by mankind, 
with surprise, that kindness and good faith were a better 
protection than the sword, even to a settlement planted 
among savages ; and that this excellent man, by his hu- 
mane, equitable, and pacific policy, without any warlike 
preparations or means of defence, secured to his colony, 
peace, prosperity, and safety, far more eifectualiy, than 
LycurgHs secured the same advantages to his country, by 
rendering the Spartans a nation of soldiers. 

41. No one of the other colonies made so rapid ad- 
vances in population and prosperity as this. The fertility 
of the soil, the salubrity of the climate, the uninterrupted 
peace with the natives, and the enjoyment of civil and 
religioi^ liberty, held out inducenients to the Quakers 
and other persecuted and oppressed people in Europe to 
seek an asylum in Pennsylvania 

42. In the original foundation of Rhode Island, by Roger 
Williams ,• of Maryland, by Lord Baltimore ; and, on a 
more extended scale, of Pennsylvania, by William Penn, 
the free toleration of religion was recognsed; and these 
were the first civil communities in which this liberal and 
enlightened principle was legally established and acted 
upon. The inhabitants of the New England colonies, 
with the exception of Rhode Island, in the early ages of 
their history, as has already been mentioned, persecuted 
those who differed from them, with regard to religion; 
and the inhabitants of Virginia harassed those who dis- 
sented from the church of England. 

-SECTION ir. ' 

Oppressive Measures relating to the Colonies : French Wars ; 
Capture of Lnuisburg ; Expedition against A''ew England ; 
Conquest of Canada. — From A. D. 1676 to 1763. 

1. From the time of the foundation of the first perma- 
nent English settlement in North America, the throne of 
England had been occupied by sovereigns of the Stvart 
Family, the influence of whose arbitrary principles tended 
to increase the number of emiarrants from Great Britain 



228 UNITED STATES. 

to America ; but this influence was also felt on this side 
of the Atlantic, as well as on the other. The colonies 
were repeatedly threatened by the king with the loss of 
their charters and their liberties ; and several of the 
governors appointed by the crown, occasioned great un- 
easiness by their oppressive measures. The controversy 
of Gorges and Mason and their heirs, with the colony of 
Massachusetts, was long a fruitful source of contention. 

2. A number of Englishmen, after having visited the 
colonies, and become, from different reasons, hostile to 
them, on their return to Great Britain, prejudiced the 
king and council against them. Of these no one so much 
distinguished himself as Edward Randoph, who was sent 
over to America by the king, in 1676, and who^according 
to his own account, crossed the Atlantic 16 times in nine 
years, chiefly for the purpose of destroying the liberties 
of New England. This purpose he finally accomplish- 
ed, and a writ was issued against the several |^arters 
in 1683. 

3. Sir Edmund Andros, who had been for some time 
governor of New York, was appointed by James II. gov- 
ernor also of New England. He arrived in Boston, in 
1686, and summoned the colonies to surrender their char- 
ters. That of Connecticut was concealed in the hollow 
of an oak in Hartford; those of the others were given up. 
Sir Edmund began with high professions of his good in- 
tentions ; but he soon threw off the mask, governed in the 
most oppressive manner, and attempted to render himself 
as despotic in America, as the ki% was disposed to be in 
England. 

4. Happily, however, the reign of tyranny was of short 
duration : the arbitrary proceedings of James II. had ren- 
dered him so odious, that he was compelled to flee from 
his kingdom. The news of the Revolution of 1688, in 
England, and the accession of William and Mary to the 
throne, was received, in this country, with ecstacy, and 
was regarded as an event which brought deliverance from 
despotism to America, as well as to Great Britain. The 
inhabitants of Boston seized Sir Edmund, with about 50 of 
his associates, and put them in close confinement. Here 
he was kept till he was ordered back to England. Con- 
necticut and Rhode Island immediately resumed their 
charters, and re-established their former government; 



UNITED ST/^TES. 229 

and the colonies of Massachusetts-Bay and Plymouth were 
united into one, under a new charter. 

5. Scarcely had the colonies emerged from one scene 
of trouble, before they were involved in another. The 
Revolution in England restored their liberties, but it soon 
subjected them to the evils of war with the French and 
the Indians. The war, during the reign of William and 
Mary, lasted from 1690 to the peace of Ryswick, in 1697 ; 
that during the reign of Anne, from 1702 to the peace of 
Utrecht, in 1713. 

6. During the 25 years preceding the peace of Utrecht, 
the country had enjoyed only four or five years of peace. 
For several years not less than a fifth part of the in- 
habitants, able to bear arms, were in actual service ; 
and sometimes one half of the militia. Those who were 
not in service, were obliged to guard their fields and 
families at home, and were subject to constant alarms. 
The resources of the country were greatly diminished ; 
the aspect of affairs gloomy ; many fields untilled ; ex- 
tensive tracts desolated ; the growth of the colonies 
exceedingly checked; their frontiers laid waste ; several 
towns burnt ; and the greatest barbarities perpetrated. 
It has been computed that, during these wars, in the 
colonies of New England and New York, as many as 
8,000 young men, the flower of the country, fell by the 
sword of the enemy, or by diseases contracted in the 
public service. Most of the families were in mourning 
for the loss of friends, who were either killed or led into 
a miserable captivity. 

7. After the peace of Utrecht the colonies enjoyed, for 
some years, a state of comparative tranquillity. But in 
1744, another war broke oat between Great Britain and 
France, of which the effects were felt in America, and 
which was here rendered memorable, chiefly by the cap- 
ture of Louisbnrg on the island of Cape Breton, by troops from 
New England, under the command of general Sir William 
Pepnerell. Louisburg had been fortified by the French at 
avast expense, and was a place of such immense streno-th, 
as to be call-^d the Dunkirk or Gibraltar of America; a'id 
the reduction of it was deemed an object of the hio-hest 
importance to New England. 

20 



230 UNITED STATES. 

8. The troops under the command of general Pepperell, 
amounting to 4,070, the greater part from Massachusetts, 
arrived at Canso on the 4th of April, and in three weeks 
after were joined by commodore Warren, with four ships 
from England. The siege was soon al'ter commenced, 
and continued till the loth of June, when Louisburg, to- 
gether with the island of Cape Breton, was surrendered 
by the French commander. 

9. The news of this brilliant achievement occasioned 
great exultation in the colonies, and encouraged them to 
attempt the conquest of all the French possessions in 
North America. It also roused the government of France 
to seek revenge; and in 1746, an armament under the 
Duke D''Jlnville, was sent to America, consisting of 11 
ships of the line, and 30 smaller vessels of war, besides 
transports, with upwards of 3,000 regular troops, and 40,000 
stands of arms for the use of the Canadians and Indians. 
The object of this armament, which was the most formid- 
able that had ever been sent to North America, was to 
recover Louisburg, and to distress, if not to conquer, New 
England. 

10. The first intelligence of the sailing of this fleet, 
filled the colonies with consternation ; but they were de- 
livered from their fears in a most extraordinary and provi- 
dential manner. The fleet had a long and disastrous 
passage, and sustained so great damages by storms and 
losses by shipwrecks, that on its arrival, the force was 
reduced more than one half. A mortal sickness prevailed 
among the troops, which carried ofi" a great part of them ; 
and the two principal commanders died suddenly, one or 
both of them by suicide, in a fit of despair. The remain- 
ing ships returned singly to France, without having ac- 
complished a single object of the expedition ; and the 
whole design against this country was frustrated without 
the intervention of human aid. — By the peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle, in 1748, Louisburg was given up to France, to 
the no small mortification of the colonies. 

11. In the succeeding period of peace, the French made 
great exertions to extend the line of military posts from 
Canada to the Mississippi. They claimed an exclusive 
right to the Indian trade on the Ohio and its branches. 
Their encroachments were loudly complained of by the 



UNITED STATES. 231 

Ohio Company^ who had obtained a grant of 600,000 acres 
of land, on and near the Ohio, for the purpose of carry- 
ing on the fur trade with the Indians, and settling the 
country. 

12. Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia laid the subject be- 
fore the assembly of that colony, and it wasdetermmed that 
it should he demanded in the name of the king, that the 
French should desist from designs, which were deemed a 
violation of existing treaties. George Washington, then in 
his 22d year, was, in 1753, sent on this service to M. de St. 
Pierre, the French commandant on the Ohio, who stated to 
Washington, that he had acted according to his orders. 

13. The British government, being informed of the 
designs of the French, directed the Americans to oppose 
them by force of arms. A regiment was soon raised, and 
put under the command of Washington, who was appoint- 
ed colonel. Troops were raised throughout the colonies; 
naval and land forces were sent from England ; and expe- 
ditions were, in 1755, sent against JVova Scotia, Crown 
Point, and Niagara. Another expedition, against Fort Du 
Quesne, [now Pittsburg] was commanded by general Brad- 
dock, who had two English regiments, and a body of colo- 
nial troops under colonel Washington ; the whole amounting 
to 1,200. Braddock and his English soldiers knew nothing 
of savage warfare ; and being attacked by an ambuscade 
of French and Indians, he was entirely defeated, and him- 
self slain. Of 85 officers, 64 were killed and wounded, 
and about half of the privates. Washington, who had two 
horses shot und^r him, and four balls shot through his 
coat, remained unhurt, and led off the remainder of the 
troops, 

14. The expedition against Crown Point was command- 
ed by general Johnson, who was met by the French army, 
under the command of Dieskau, on the banks of Lake 
George. A battle ensued, in which Dieskau was defeated, 
%vith the loss of 700 or 800 men, and himself mortally 
wounded. The expedition against JViagara and Fort Fron- 
tenac, under the command of governor Shirley of Massa- 
chusetts, was delayed till it became too late in the season 
to effect any thing of importance. 

15. The war, which had been carried on two years 
without any formal proclamation, was at length declared 
in 1756. The Marquis de Montcalm succeeded Dieskau, 



232 UNITED STATES. 

and Mercrombie and the Earl of Lovdon were appointed 
to the chief command of the English troops. Montcalm 
was an able commander, but the British generals were 
weak and ineificient ; and the campaigns of 1756 and 
1757, brought reproach upon them and the British gov- 
ernment, and occasioned chagrin and disappointment in 
the colonies. But a change having taken place in the 
English ministry, and ./llr. Pitt, (afterwards Lort^ Chatham,) 
being placed at the head of the administration, every 
thing immediately assumed a new aspect. 

16. This great man, who was popular in America, ad- 
dressed a circular letter to the colonial governors, assuring 
them that an effectual force should be sent from England^ 
and calling upon them to raise as large bodies of men as 
the population would allow. The number of men brought 
into the service was 50,000, of which 20,000 were raised 
in America. Three expeditions were resolved on ; the 
first against Louishurg, the second against Ticonderoga, 
and the third against Fort Du Quesne. 

17. In the expedition against Louisburg, the land forces, 
amounting to 14,000, were led by general Amherst, next 
to whom, in command, was general Wolfe ; and a large 
naval armament was commanded by admiral Boscawen^ 
After a considerable resistance, the fortress was surren- 
dered, with the garrison, consisting of nearly 6,000 men, 
and a great quantity of military stores. This was the 
severest blow the French had received since the com- 
mencement of the war. 

18. The attack on Ttconderoga vfVLS couducted by gen- 
eral Mercrombie, the commander-in-chief; but owing to 
his injudicious management, he was repulsed, with the loss 
of about 2,000 men. A detachment of 3,000 men, under 
colonel Bradstreet, took and destroyed Fort Frontenac. The 
expedition against Fort du Qiiesne was conducted by gen- 
eral Forbes, who took possession of the post, and changed 
its name to Pittsburg. 

19. After the disaster at Ticonderoga, Mercrombie fell 
into contempt, and the chief command was given to gen- 
eral Amherst. The campaign of 1759, had for its object 
the entire conquest of Canada. The British army was 
divided into three parts; the first division, under Wolfe, 
was to make an attempt on Quebec; the second, under 
.imherst, was to attack Ticonderoga and Crown Point ; and 



UNITED STATES. * 233 

the third, under Prideaux, was to be directed against the 
strong hold oi Niagara. 

20. On the approach of Amherst, Ticonderoga and Crown 
Point were evacuated. Niagara was besieged, and after 
a severe action, it fell into the hands of the English; 
but four days before the conquest, general Prideaux was 
killed. 

21. By the taking of these forts, great advantages were 
gained ; but a far more important and arduous enterprise 
was intrusted to the heroic general Wolfe. This was the 
reduction of Quebec, a place of immense strength, both 
by nature and art, and protected by about 10,000 men, 
under that able and, hitherto, successful general, Montcalm. 
But the difficulties which the English general had to sur- 
mount, served only to inflame his ardent mind, and his 
military enthusiasm. Having landed his army, consisting 
of 8,000 men, on the island of Orleans, below Quebec, he 
made some unsuccessful attempts to reduce the city. 

22. He then conceived the bold design of scaling, during 
the night, a steep precipice on the north bank of the river, 
and in this way to reach the Heights of Abraham behind 
the city, where it was least defensible. This he effected 
before Montcalm was aware of bis design, and the whole 
army was arrayed on the heights before sun-rise. A 
hot battle followed, in which the French were entirely 
defeated, with the loss of 1,500 men, and their four prin- 
cipal commanders : the English lost 500, together with 
their two first officers. The two great rivals, Wolfe and 
Montcalm, were both mortally wounded before the battle 
was terminated. 

23. Wolfe, having received a fatal wound, was carried 
to the rear ; where, at his request, he was raised up, that 
he might take a view of the engagement. Faint with the 
loss of blood, and his eyes dimmed by the approach of 
death, he was roused at the words, " They fly, they fly." 
" Who fly ? " he exclaimed. He was told, " The enemy." 
" Then," said the hero, " I die contented ; " and having 
said this, he expired in the arms of victory. — The same 
military enthusiasm animated Montcalm. Being told that 
he could not continue more than a few hours, he said, " It 
is so much the better; I shall not then live to see the sur- 
render of Quebec." 

20* 



234 UNITED STATES. 

24. This battle was followed by the reduction of the 
city, and ultinriately by that of all Canada. By the peace 
of Paris, in 1763, this province, together with JYova Scotia 
and the island of Cape Breton, were confirmed to Britain. 
The success of this war, joyful as it was to England, was 
still more so to the colonies, who now expected a release 
from the heavy calamities, which they had long suffered 
from hostilities with the French and Indians. 

SECTION III. 

Disputes between Great Britain and the Colonies : Commence- 
ment of Hostilities : Battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill .' 
Declaration of Independence. — From 1763 Jl. D. to 1776. 

1. The colonists, from the time of the first settlement 
of the country, had been ardently attached to liberty, and 
extremely jealous of any invasion of their rights. The 
emigrants from England to America, had been induced 
to leave their natite land principally by the idea that 
they might escape from oppression and arbitrary power, 
and might enjoy freedom, both civil and religious. They 
cherished, however, a strong attachment to the parent 
country, always acknowledged themselves subjects of 
the crown of Great Britain, and were loyal and faithful 
subjects- 

2. Notwithstanding their various embarrassments, the 
long and distressing wars with the Indians and French, 
and the severe restrictions which were imposed by Great 
Britain upon their trade, and which were borne, in some 
instances, with extreme impatience ; yet, amidst these 
difficulties, the colonies made a rapid progress in wealth 
and population, and in all the arts of civil life ; and at the 
peace of 1763, they had risen to a high state of prosperity.. 
They abounded in spirited and active individuals of all 
denominations* 

3. After the conquest of Canada had freed them from 
the distresses occasioned by war with the French and 
savages, and given them a short interval of repose ; 
troubles assailed from a new and unexpected quarter. 
The mother country began speedily to assert her sove- 
reignty over them, and to interfere in their civil concerns, 
in a manner which excited the most serious alarm,. 



UNITED STATES. 23& 

4. The British parliament formed a plan of raising a 
revenue by taxing the colonies, the pretext for which was^ 
that Great Britain might oblain indemnification for the 
great expenses of the late war made in their defence. 
In 1764, parliament passed an act by which duties were 
laid on goods Imported from such of the West India islands 
as did not belong to Great Britain. This measure occa- 
sioned great uneasiness in the colonies, who denied the 
right of parliament to tax them at all ; contending " that 
taxation and representation were inseparable ; and that 
they could not be safe, if their property could be taken 
from them without their consent." 

5. Early in the next year, the famous stamp act was 
passed, laying a duty on all paper used for instruments of 
writing, as deeds, notes, &c., and declaring writings on 
unstamped materials to be null and void. The news of 
this measure caused a great sensation throughout the 
country. The assembly of Virginia first declared its ap- 
position to the act by a number of spirited resolutions, 
which were brought forward by Patrick Henry ; but Mas' 
sachusetts took the lead in this important crisis, and gave 
the tone to the subsequent proceedings. In all the colo- 
nies, however, a determined spirit of resistance was soon 
manifested. 

6. When the news of the stamp act arrived at Boston, 
the bells were muffled, and rung a funeral peal. The act 
was first hawked about the streets, with a Death's head 
affixed to it, and styled " The Folly of England, and the 
Ruin of America." The crown officers were insulted ; 
their houses demolished; and amcng other outrages, the 
populace destroyed a valuable collection of original papers 
belonging to governor Hutchinson^ and relating to the 
history of America. The merchants also associated, and 
agreed to a resolution not to import any more goods from 
Great Britain, until the act should be repealed. 

7. A Colonial Congress^ appointed by nine of the colonies, 
assembled, in 1765, at JVew York, and published a declar- 
ation of their rights and their grievances, insisting par- 
ticularly on the right of exclusively taxing themselves, 
and complaining loudly of the stamp act. The merchants 
of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, entered into an 
agreement not to import or sell any British goods, so long 
as the offensive measure should be continued. The act 



236 UNITED STATES, 

was never executed in America. It was opposed also by 
able statesmen in England; and in March, 1766, it was 
repealed ; but the repeal was preceded by a declaration 
of parliament, " that they had, and of right ought to have, 
power to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." 

8. The favourite project of the British ministry of tax- 
ing America, was still persisted in ; and in the June fol- 
lowing, an act was passed imposing a duty on tea. paper, 
glass, and painters'' colours. To render the act effectual, a 
custom-house was established in Boston, with a board of 
commissioners for the colonies ; and in September, two 
British regiments arrived in the town. Another most 
arbitrary measure of parliament, which gave great offence, 
was a proposition that offenders in Massachusetts should 
be sent to England for trial. 

9. The feelings of the Americans were now greatly 
exasperated. To a free and high-spirited people, the 
presence of an insolent military could not but be extreme- 
ly odious and provoking; and on the 5th of March, 1770, 
an affray took place between the soldiers and some of 
the inhabitants of Boston, in which three of the latter 
were killed, and five dangerously wounded. The persons 
concerned in their death, were tried by a court of the 
province, and a jury of the neighbourhood, and were all 
acquitted except two, who were convicted of manslaugh- 
ter. Soon after this, parliament repealed all the duties, 
except the one of three pence per pound on tea. By this 
the British ministry intended to establish the right to raise 
a revenue in the colonies ; but the Americans were de- 
termined to resist the principle of taxation in every shape. 
The inhabitants of JVew York and Philadelphia returned 
to England the tea ships, which were sent to those cities. 
In Boston a number of persons, disguised like Mohawk 
Indians, went on board the vessels, and threw the tea, 
consisting of 342 chests, into the harbour. 

10. — (1774.) — In consequence of these measures, parlia- 
tQjBnt passed further hostile acts; and £osioH.. being regarded 
as the chief seat of rebellion, was selected as an object of 
vengeance. By one of the acts, called the '■'■Boston Port Bill,'''' 
all intercourse by water with that town was prohibited ; 
the government and public offices were removed to Salem ; 
and power was given to the governor to send persons 
charged with high treason to be tried in Britain. All 



UNITED STATES. 237 

these vindictive measures only served more firmly to unite 
the Americans in their resistance to the mother coun- 
try. In May, general Gage arrived in Boston, commis- 
sioned as governor of Massachusetts, and commander- 
in-chief of the British forces. Shortly after two more 
regiments landed with artillery and military stores, in- 
dicative of the determination of the British government 
to reduce the colonies to submission by force of arms. 

11. When the Americans saw. by the measures of the 
British government, that a reconciliation was no longer 
to be expected, and that their rights were to be defended 
by an appeal to force, they took measures to prepare 
themselves for the contest. A committee of correspond- 
ence was formed by distinguished men in Massachusetts, 
who framed an agreement, called a solemn league and 
covenant, by which they determined to suspend all inter- 
course with Great Britain, until their rights should be 
restored. 

12. The general court of Massachusetts resolved that a 
congress of the colonies was necessary : they enrolled a 
body of men to be prepared for marching at a minute's 
notice, and therefore called minute-men ; appointed five 
general officers to command them ; formed a committee 
of safety ; and took measures to collect military stores at 
Concord and Worcester. The plan for assembling a con- 
gress was speedily adopted by all the colonies, except 
Georgia; and on the 5th of September, the delegates 
met at Philadelphia. This body, generally known by the 
name of the Continental Congress., was composed of 55 
members, most of whom were men of distinguished char- 
acter and talents : Peyton Randolph of Virginia was chosen 
president. They published a declaration of the rights of 
the colonies; agreed to suspend all commercial intercourse 
with Great Britain ; and drew up an address to the king,^ 
another to the people of Great Britain, and a third to the 
colonies. 

13. The disparity between the two contending parties 
was immense. Great Britain was the first maritime power 
in the world, and possessed great wealth, vast resources, 
well disciplined armies, and experienced and able military 
and naval commanders. The colonies possessed none of 
these advantages, and had no general government to con- 
trol the contending interests of the different parts. They 



238 UNITED STATES. 

were almost entirely destitute of experienced oflficers, of 
disciplined troops, of arms and munitions of war, of 
armed ships, and of revenue. Their want of these essen- 
tial articles, particularly of regular and disciplined troops, 
of good arms and ammunition, and more especially of 
money^ embarrassed all their operations, during the con- 
tinuance of the war. Their resolution to engage in the 
unequal contest, was regarded in England with the utmost 
contempt ; and it was confidently expected, by the British 
ministry, that their efforts would be speedily and easily 
crushed. 

14. — (1775.) — When the proceedings of the American 
congress were laid before parliament, a joint address of 
both houses was presented to the king, declaring that a 
rebellion actually existed in Massachusetts, and beseech- 
ing his majesty to suppress it. In the winter and spring of 
1775, the army in Boston was increased to 10,000, which 
number was deemed sufficient to reduce the rebellious 
colonies to submission. 

1 5. In February, general Gage sent a party of troops to 
Salem, to seize some cannon which had been lodged there ; 
but finding, on their arrival, that the cannon had been 
removed, they marched back unmolested. In April, a 
body of troops was sent to seize some military stores at 
Concord. The march, though in the night, was discover- 
ed, and early in the morning of the 19th of the month, 
as they passed through Lexington, about 70 men, belong- 
ing to the minute company of that town, were found on 
the green under arms. Major Pitcairn, the British com- 
mander, riding up to them, called out, "Disperse, dis- 
perse, you rebels." Not being obeyed, he discharged his 
pistol, and ordered his troops to fire. Eight Americans 
were killed, and several wounded. Thus began the san- 
guinary contest, which issued in the establishment of Ame- 
rican Independence. 

16. Having dispersed the militia at Lexington, the 
British troops proceeded to Concord, and destroyed some 
military stores collected in that town. On their return, 
the passage of a bridge over Concord river was disputed ; 
a skirmish ensued, which was attended with some loss on 
both sides. The people of the neighbourhood were soon 
in arms, and attacked the retreating troops in a!l direc- 
tions; some firing behind stone walls and trees, and others 



UNITED STATES. 239 

pressing upon their rear, till they had returned as far as 
Lexington^ where they were joined by a reinforcement, 
which secured their retreat to Boston, after a loss of 65 
killed, and 180 wounded. Of the Amerians, 50 were 
killed, and 34 wounded. 

17. The affair at Lexington was a signal for war. The 
forts, magazines, and arsenals, throughout the colonies, 
were instantly secured for the use of the Americans. 
Regular forces were raised ; a considerable army was soon 
collected in the vicinity of Boston ; a large bedy of troops 
arrived from Connecticut, under colonel (afterwards gen- 
eral) Putnam^ and expeditions were sent to Tlconderoga 
and Crown Point, which secured those important posts. — 
The provincial congress of Massachusetts, which was in 
session at the time of the affair at Lexington, despatched 
an account of the transaction to England, with depositions 
to prove that the British troops were the aggressors. 
They declared their loyalty to the crown, but protested 
that they would not submit to the tyranny of the British 
ministry. " Appealing to heaven for the justice of our 
cause," they added, '■' we determine to die or be free." 

18. The second continental or general congress met at 
Philadelphia in May, and the appellation of the United 
Colonies was assumed. The congress recommended the 
observance of a day of humiliation, to implore the blessings 
of heaven on their sovereign, the king of Great Britain, 
and the interposition of divine aid to remove their griev- 
ances, and restore harmony between the parent state and 
the colonies on constitutional terms. 

19. Toward the end of May, considerable reinforce* 
ments of British troops arrived at Boston, together with 
generals Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton, who had acquired 
a high reputation in the preceding war. Martial law was 
proclaimed ; but a show of conciliation was still held out 
by the offer of general Gage, in the king's name, of par- 
don to all such as should return to their allegiance, with 
the exception of two of the most active patriots in Massa- 
chusetts, John Hancock and Samuel Mams ; the former of 
whom had been recently chosen president of the general 
congress then in session. 

20. It was determined by the Americans to annoy, and, 
if possible, to dislodge the British f( rces in Boston ; and 
for this purpose, a detachment of 1000 men, under the 



240 1EJNITCD STATES. 

command of colonel Prescott^ was ordered, on the 16th of 
June, to throw up a breast work on Bunker Hill, in 
Charlestovvn. They prosecuted the design so silently and 
expeditiously, that they had nearly completed the redoubt 
by the return of daylight, without being discovered. 
Soon after the dawn of the morning, the British began to 
cannonade the works from their ships. 

21. About noon (^llth of June) general Howe, at the head 
of 3,000 men, advanced to make an attack upon the works. 
The fire of the Americans was dreadful, insomuch that the 
whole British line recoiled, and was thrown into great 
disorder ; but from the failure of ammunition, the Ameri- 
cans were obliged to retreat. The loss of the English 
amounted to 1,054 in killed and wounded; that of the 
Americans to 453 ; and among their killed was general 
Warren. While the British troops were advancing, orders 
were given to set fire to Charlestown ; and the whole 
town, consisting of about 400 houses, was laid in ashes. 
This barbarous act was of no advantage to the enemy, but 
served still further to exasperate the Americans. 

22. A bill was now brought forward by Lord North, the 
British prime minister, which he termed a conciliatory 
proposition, the purport of which was, that when any 
colony should make provision for contributing its propor- 
tion to the common defence, and make such provision also 
for the support of its civil government, as should be ap- 
proved by his majesty and the parliament, the British 
government would abstain from taxing such colony, and 
confine itself to commercial regulations. The design of 
this proposition was to unite Great Britain, and divide 
America ; but it was universally rejected by the colo- 
nies, and by the congress assembled at Philadelphia. 
It was derided by the friends of America in the British 
parliament, as nugatory, since it was the right, not the 
mode of taxation, which the colonies disputed. 

23. The congress continued to act with vigour ; they 
agreed upon articles of confederation, in which the whole 
13 colonies united ; and drew up an able declaration, jus- 
tifying their resistance lO the mother country. It was a 
point of immense importance to select a suitable man for 
the supreme command of the American army. Fortunately, 
their choice fll upon George Washnt';ton, a member of 
their body from Virginia, who, in the late French war. 



UNITED STATES. 241 

had distinguished himself by his courage and talents. He 
received from nature a mind of extraordinary capacity ; 
and was endowed with an uncommon degree of persever- 
ance, prudence, and bravery ; while the soundness of his 
judgment, the elevation of his character, and the purity 
of his motives, were calculated to inspire the highest con- 
fidence. He entered immediately upon the duties of his 
office ; and on the 2d of July, he arrived at Cambridge, 
where he established his head quarters. 

24. In pursuance of a plan of guarding the frontiers by 
taking Canada, an expedition was sent against that province, 
\inder the command of generals Schuyler and Montgomery ; 
but the former returning, to hold a treaty with the Indians, 
the command was left with the latter. Having taken 
Fort Chamblee and St. Johns, he advanced to Montreal^ 
which surrendered without resistance ; thence he pro- 
ceeded rapidly to Quebec. Colonel Arnold had been sent 
from Cambridge to penetrate to that city, by way of the 
Kennebec and the wilderness. After a most difficult 
march, he joined Montgomery before Quebec, in Novem- 
ber. They made a desperate attempt to carry the city 
by assault, in which, after displaying the highest intre- 
pidity, they were repulsed, and general Montgomery was 
slain. Early in the next season, the Americans entirely 
evacuated Canada. 

25. While hostilities were thus carried on in the north, 
the inhabitants of Virginia, who had, from the commence- 
ment of the controversy, been in the foremost rank of 
opposition, were engaged in a contest with the royal gov- 
ernor. Lord Dunmore, whose intemperate measures ad- 
vanced the cause which he attempted to overthrow. In the 
end he was forced to take refuge with his family, on board 
a man-of-war. For some time he carried on a predatory 
warfare against the colonies, by landing detachments of 
troops from the ships, and laid the flourishing town of 
Norfolk in ashes ; but he was finaljy driven from the 
coast. 

26. In like manner the royal governors of North and 
South Carolina, were expelled by the people ; and before 
the end of the year 1775, all the old governments of the 
colonies were dissolved. Many adherents to Great Britain 
(styled Tories), however, remained in the country ; and 
in some of the colonies they were namerous and powerful : 

21 



242 UNITED STATES. 

part of them, being men of principle, remained quiet ; 
others were active in their hostility, and contributed to 
weaken the opposition to the British arms. — In October, 
general Gage embarked for England, and the chief com- 
mand of the British forces devolved upon general Sir 
William Howe. 

27. — (1776.) — The. American army investing Boston, 
amounted to about 15,000 men; but it was, in a great 
measure, destitute of good arms, ammunition, clothing, 
and experienced officers ; and for want of powder, and 
other reasons, was rendered inactive, during the summer 
and autumn of 1775. In the latter part of the winter, 
general Washington resolved to expel the British from 
Boston ; and in order to divert their attention, a severe 
canonnade was commenced upon them by the Americans, 
on the 2d of March ; on the the night of the 4th, a battery 
was erected on Dorchester Heights, which was near enough 
for annoying the enemy. 

28. General Howe prepared to attack the works, but a 
storm prevented him, till they were rendered so strong, 
that it was deemed inexpedient. The only alternative now 
was to evacuate the town ; which having been done, gen- 
eral Washington, on the 17th of March, entered trium- 
phantly into Boston, where he was joyfully received as a 
deliverer, by the oppressed inhabitants. 

29. The news of the battle of Bunker Hill excited 
astonishment in England. The partisans of the ministry 
had been accustomed to speak of the American troops in 
terms of the utmost contempt ; but it now appeared that 
they were engaged in a sanguinary contest of doubtful 
issue ; and Lord Chatham, Burke, and Fox endeavoured, 
but without success, to produce a change in the measures 
of government. The ministry determined to employ a 
powerful force to reduce the colonies, and obtained an act 
of parliament authorizing them to take into pay 16,000 
mercenaries, the troops of the landgrave of Hesse and the 
duke of Brunswick. All trade and intercourse with the 
colonies were prohibited; and their property on the high 
seas, was declared to be forfeited to those who should 
capture it. The whole force now destined against America, 
amounted to about 50,000 men. 

30. The controversy had hitherto been, not for inde- 
pendence, but for constitutional liberty. But the hostile 



UNITED STATES. 243 

measures of the British government, produced a strong' 
sensation in the colonies, and they soon began to think 
seriously of dissolving entirely their allegiance to the 
mother country. A great and sudden change now took place 
in the public mind, which was, in part, brought about by a 
series of papers written by Thomas Paine, and published 
under the signature of Common Sense, the design of which 
was to prove the expediency and necessity of a declara- 
tion of independence. On the 17th of June, a motion was 
made, in congress, by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia, for 
declaring the colonies free and independent. After a full 
discussion, the question was carried by a vote nearly 
unanimous, on the memorable Ath of July, 1776. 

31. The declaration thus concludes: " We, therefore, 
the representatives of the United States of America, in 
general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme 
Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, 
in the name and by the authority of the good people of 
these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, that these 
United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, Free and 
Independent States ; that they are absolved from all alle- 
giance to the British crown, and that all political connexion 
between them and the state of Great Britain, is, and ought 
to be, totally dissolved ; and that as free and independent 
states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, 
contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other 
acts and things which independent states ought to do. 
And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reli- 
ance on the protection of Divine Pro/idence, we mutually 
pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sa- 
cred honour." 

SECTION IV. 

Revolutionary War continued : — Battles of Brooklyn, White 
Plains, Trenton, Princeton, Bennington, Brandywine, 
Germantown^ Stillwater ; Surrender at Saratoga ; Bat- 
tles of Mnnmouth, Rhode Island, Camden, Cow-Pens, 
Guilford, Eutaw Spritigs ; Surrender at Yorktowa ; — In- 
dependence acknowledged. — From A. D. 1776 to 1783. 

1. On the 28th of July, an attack was made by Sir 
Peter Parker with a naval force, on the fort on Sul- 
livan's island, with a design to reduce Charleston, in South 



244 UNITED STATES. 

Carolina. The fire was returned with great effect from 
the fort, which was commanded hy colonel Moultrie, and 
the British were compelled to retreat with much damage 
to their ships, and a loss of upwards of 200 men in killed 
and wounded. 

2. Sir William Howe, after having evacuated Boston, 
sailed with his army to Halifax. General Washington, 
believing that the occupation of the important and central 
positioa of JYew York would be a favourite object with the 
British, soon removed to that city, with the principal part 
of his army. In June, general Howe arrived off Sandy 
Hook, and was soon joined by his brother. Admiral Lord 
Howe, with a great naval armament. The British troops 
on board .amounted to nearly 30,000 ; to these general 
Washington could oppose only about 17,000 men, most of 
them without experience or discipline, and many of them 
weakened by sickness. 

3. Lord Howe and Sir William, being both of them 
commissioned to settle all difficulties with the colonies^ 
before the commencement of hostilities, the former sent 
a letter to general Washington, offering terms of accom- 
modation ; but the letter being addressed to George Wash- 
ington, Esq., the commander declined receiving it, or any 
writing unless directed to him in his proper character. 
A second letter was sent by general Howe, directed to 
George Washington, ^c. t^c. 4'C. ; but the indignity was re- 
pelled. From some conversation, however, which took 
place, it appeared that Great Britain still held to all her 
lofty pretensions, offsrring pardon for the past, by way of 
concession. But Washington observed that the Americans, 
having taken up arms to defend their indisputable rights, 
were conscious of no guilt, and wanted no pardon. 

4. Both sides prepared seriously for action. On the 
27th of August, an engagement took place, between Brook- 
lyn and Flatbush : the Americans, under the command of 
general Sullivan, being surrounded, and exposed to the 
fire of the Hessians in front, and of the British troops 
in the rear, were totally defeated, with a loss, according 
lo their own statement, of 1,200, and according to that of 
the British, of 3,000. Three American generals, Sullivan, 
Lord Stirling, and Woodhidl, fell into the hands of the 
enemy, whose loss was only about 300 or 400. During 
the heat of the engagement, general Washington crossed 



UNITED STATES. 245 

over from New York to Brooklyn, and made an admi- 
rable retreat, on the night of the 29th. It was effected 
under the cover of a thick fog, with such silence, order, 
and secrecy, that the British army, which was encamped 
only a quarter of a mile distant, did not discover it, till it 
was too late to annoy the Americans. 

5. Washington, with a part of his army, retired to 
White Plains^ where, on the 28th of October, an engage- 
ment took place, in which several hundreds fell. General 
Howe soon after reduced Fort Washington, on the Hudson, 
containing a garrison of upwards of 2,000 men. The 
British were now in possession of the city of New York, 
Long Island, and Staten Island. 

6. Washington having crossed the Hudson, retreated 
through New Jej-sey, by Newark, New, Brunswick, Prince- 
ton, and Trenton ; thence he crossed over to the Penn- 
sylvania side of the Delaware, being closely pursued by 
the British army, under Lord Cornwall s, who arrived at 
the river just after the American army had effected the 
passage. Ihe British troops, in the full career of success, 
were ordered into winter cantonments. 

7. The aspect of American affairs was now exceedingly 
gloomy. The army was greatly reduced by the loss of 
men in killed, wounded, and taken ; and by the departure 
of those whose enlistments had expired. To add to the 
disasters, general Lee had been surprised and taken prison- 
er at Baskenridge ; and the British had seized upon Rhode 
Island. The whole number of troops under Washington, 
on the west side of the Delaware, amounted to only about 
3,000, many of whom were without shoes or convenient 
clothing. In this discouraging state of affairs, many 
persons abandoned the American cause, and joined the 
British. 

8. Washington, aware of the importance of striking 
some successful blow, in order to animate the expiring 
hopes of the country, on the night of the 25th of Decem- 
ber, crossed the Delaware, fell on the enemy, at Trenton^ 
by surprise, and took the whole body, consisting of about 
1,000 Hessians, whose commander, colonel liawle, was 
slain. He then proceeded to Princeton^ and on the 3d of 
January, 1777, defeated a party of British troops, who 
lost about 100 men; and forced about 300 to surrender, 
who had taken refuge in the College. In this action, 

21* 



246 UNITED STATES. 

general Mercer of Virginia was killed. These bold and 
decisive measures of Washington, revived the drooping 
spirits of the Americans, and surprised and confounded the 
enemy. 

9. During the gloomy period of the latter part f the 
year 1776, the congress manifested the greatest firmness ; 
they increased the power of Washington, investing him 
with supreme and unlimited command ; took measures for 
raising an army for three years, or during the war; form- 
ed articles of confederation and perpetual union between 
the states; endeavoured to rouse the people by an im- 
pressive address ; and sent agents to Europe to solicit the 
friendship and aid of foreign powers. 

10. — (1777.) — In March, general Howe sent up the 
Hudson a detachment to destroy some stores at Peekshill ; 
and in April another detachment of 2,000 men, under 
general Tryon., proceeded to Danbury, in Connecticut, 
destroyed valuable stores collected there, and burnt the 
most of the town. During their return, there took place, 
between the British and the Connecticut militia, some 
skirmishes, in one of which general Woosier was killed. 

11. On the opening of the campaign in the spring, 
the principal American army was increased to but little 
more than 7,000 men. General Howe, after having at- 
tempted in vain to provoke Washington to an engagement, 
retired from New Jersey to Staten Island; afterwards 
embarked with 16,000 men on board his ships; entered 
the Chesapeake, and landed at the head of navigation on 
Elk river. It being obviously his object to occupy Phila- 
delphia^ Washington put his army in motion in order, if 
possible, to prevent it. On the 11th of September, a bat- 
tle was fought on the Brandyxoine, in which the American 
forces, after a brave resistance, were obliged to yield to 
superior numbers and discipline, with the loss of about 
1,000 men in killad, wounded, and taken ; among the 
wounded was the young Marqu's de Lafayette^ who had 
recently entered a volunteer in the American service. 
The loss of the British was about half that number. 

12. Immediately after this battle, general Howe took 
possession of Philadelphia ; and the principal part of his 
army was stationed at Germantown, seven miles from the 
city. It now became necessary for him to take the forts 
an the Delaware, in order to open a conamunication with 



UNITED STATES. ' 24T 

the Atlantic. This was eflFected, after haviag cost the 
British a loss of three or four hundred men. While this 
detachment was absent, Washington attacked the array at 
Gennantown, on the 4th of October, but was repulsed, 
with a loss of about 1,200 men in killed, wounded, and 
prisoners; while the loss of the enemy was only about 
half as great. After these transactions, the British army 
went into winter quarters in Philadelphia. 

13. During- these inauspicious operations in the Miu'dle 
States, important events were taking place in the north. 
Early in the spring, it was determined in England to 
invade the States through Canada; and in June, a British 
army, amounting to 7,000 men, besides Canadians and 
Indians, commanded by general Biirgoyne, passed up lake 
Champlain, and laid siege to Ticonderoga^ which was aban- 
doned by the Americans under general St. Clair. General 
Burgoyne proceeded to Skeensborough [now Whiie'ialfj, 
and destroyed the American tlotilla and stores; and from 
thence he led his army to Fort Edward, on the Hudson. 

14. While remaining here, he sent a detachment of 
500 English troops and 100 Indians, under colonel Buum, 
to destroy a collection of storea at Bei nington^ in Ver- 
mont. On the 16th of August, general Stark, with about 
800 Vermont and New Hampshire militia, killed and took 
prisoners the most of this detachment. The next day a 
reinforcement of 500 Germans,*sader colonel Breynifin., 
arrived, and was also defeated by general Stark. The 
loss of the British in these two engagements, was about 
600. A few days before this battle, general Herkimer 
was defeated, on the Mohawk, by the British, under 
colonel St. Leger., with considerable loss. 

15. General Burgoyne having collected his forces and 
stores, crossed the Hudson, and encamped at Saratoga. 
General Gates, who had recently taken the chief command 
of the northern department of the American army, having 
concentrated his troops, advanced towards the enemj'^, and 
on the 19th of September an obstinate, but indecisive en- 
gagement took place at Stillwater, in which the Americans 
lost between 300 and 400, and the British about 600. The 
British army was soon after confined in a narrow pass ; hav- 
ing the Hudson on one side, and impassable woods on the 
other; a body of Americans in the rear, and an enemy of 
13,000 men in front. 



24g tJNITED STATES. 

16. In this exigency, Burgoyne resolved to examine the 
possibility of dislodging the Americans, arid sent a body 
of 1,500 men to reconnoitre the left wing, when a second 
severe engagement took place, in which the British were 
worsted, and general Fraser was killed ; and the American 
generals, Lincoln and .hnold, were woundeil. Bui'goyne, 
after having made ineffectual attempts to retreat, finding 
his provisions nearly exhausted, his troops worn down with 
incessant toil, and his situation becoming every hour more 
critical, called a council of war, in which it was unani- 
mously resolved to capitulate ; and on the 17th of October, 
the whole army, consisting of 5,752 men, exclusive of sick 
and wounded, surrendered, at Saratoga, as prisoners of 
war to general Gates. 

17. The surrender of Burgoyne excited the liveliest joy 
among the Americans, and inspired them with contidence 
with regai'd to their ultimate success in establishing their 
independence. In 1776, congress had sent Silas Deane to 
France to solicit assistance ; but though it was evident that 
the French court secretly wished success tp the Americans, 
yet they would give no open countenance to their agent, till 
the news of the surrender of Burgoyne. That event decided 
the negociati&n ; and in February, 1 778, treaties o; alliance, 
and of amity and commerce, were s"gned at Paris by the 
French ministers and the American commissioners, Frank- 
lin, Deane. and Lee. 1?^ news of this alliance was re- 
ceived with great joy in America. 

18. — (1778.) — The British ministry, after hearing of 
the fate of their northern army, began to speak of Ameri- 
can affairs with more moderation ; and on receiving intel- 
ligence of the alliance between France and the United 
States, their fears were increased. In February, Lord 
North laid before parliament bills for conciliating America ; 
commissioners were appointed, who arrived in June, 
bringing terms of accommodation, which a few years before 
might have effected the object. But the day of reconcili- 
ation was past; the congress had now proceeded too far, 
and were too sanguine with regard to ultimate success, to 
listen to any terms short of an acknowledgment of inde- 
pendence. 

19. At the opening of the campaign of 1778, general 
Howe went to England, and general Sir Henry Clinton suc- 
ceeded him as commander-in-chief It was now determined 



UNITED STATES. 249 

by the British to concentrate their forces in the city of 
JVew York ; and with this view the royal army left Phila- 
delphia in June, and crossed the Delaware. General 
Washington, penetrating their design, attempted to in- 
terrupt their progress. The two armies met on the 28th 
of June, near Monmouth court house, where a smart action 
took place, in which the Americans lost about 230 killed 
and wounded, and the British about 400. This day was 
remarkable for excessive heat, which occasioned great 
suffering and many deaths in both armies. The British 
troops retreated, after the battle, to New York, and re- 
mained inactive during the summer. 

20. A French fleet of 12 ships of the line and 4 frigates, 
under the command of Count dPEstaign^ arrived at the 
entrance of the Delaware in July; and a plan was con- 
certed to attack the British troops at JVewport, but it 
proved unsuccessful. A short but obstinate engagement 
took place on Rhode Island, on the 29th of August, be- 
tween the British under general Pigot, and the Americans 
under general Sullivan, in which each lost upwards of 200 
men. The next day the Americans retreated from the 
island. — In the autumn, general Clinton sent an expedition 
to Georgia ; and on the last of December, the British, 
after defeating the American force, took possession of 
Savannah. 

21. — (1779.) — The operations of the war during 1779, 
were not of any decisive consequence ; though they gave 
rise to various expeditions, in which much valour and 
skill were displayed. The exertions of the Americans 
were enfeebled from the depreciation of their bills of 
credit, and from their not deriving the benefit which they 
had expected from the French fleet, which was unsuccess- 
ful in all its enterprises. 

22. Early in the season, Sir George Collier and general 
Mutthevcs were sent from New York to Virginia, on a 
predatory expedition. They landed at Portsmouth, and 
destroyed the shipping and valuable stores in that vicinity, 
together with many houses. A similar expedition was 
afterwards sent against the maritime parts of Connecticut, 
under the command of general Tryon, who plundered 
JN'erw Haven, and burnt Fairfield and JVorwalk. 

23. The British troops having taken and fortified Stony 
Point, an eminence on the Hudson, an expedition, under 



250 UNITED STATES. 

the commaad of general Wayne, was sent, in July, to re- 
duce it, which was conducted with great heroism, and the 
whole garrison surrendered. A similar expedition, under 
the command of general Lovell, was sent against a British 
post at Penobscot, but it was unsuccessful. General Sul- 
livan, with a strong force, invaded the country of the 
Six Nat'ions of Indians, destroyed 40 of their villages, 
with all their corn and fruit trees, and returned with little 
loss. 

24. During this year, general Lincoln held the chief 
command of the American army in the southern depart- 
ment. He sent a detachment of 1500 men to cross the 
Savannah, under the command of general Ash, who was 
surprised and defeated at Briar Creek, by general Prevost, 
with a loss of about 300 men, in killed and taken. This 
success emboldeaed general Prevost to make an attempt 
on Charleston, but it was unsuccessful. Count (PEstaign 
having arrived with his fleet from the West Indies, an 
attack was made on the British under the command of 
general Prevost, in Savannah, by a united force of French 
and Americans; but they were repulsed, with the loss of 
about 1,000 men, among whom was Count Pulaski, a 
Polish officer in the American service. The French fleet 
soon after depa.'-ted from the American coast. 

25. — (1780.) — In 1780, 5o:/i/i Caro/irta became the prin- 
cipal theatre of the war Sir Henry Clinton sailed from 
New York with a large force, and arrived at Savannah in 
January. From thence he proceeded to Charleston, in 
April laid siege to the city, and having' prepared to storm 
it, general Lincoln was, on the 17th of xVIay, compelled to 
capitulate. The garrison, consisting of about 2,500 men, 
together with all the adult male inhabitants, were surren- 
dered as prisoners of war. General Clinton, leaving about 
4,000 troops for the southern service, under the command of 
Lord Cornwallis, returned to New York. A proclamation 
was issued, inv ting the Carolinians to the royal standard ; 
several recruits were, in consequence, procured ; but the 
great body of the people remained true to the cause of 
liberty and independence. 

26. Charleston being now in the possession of the Brit- 
ish, measures were taken to secure the obedience of the 
interior country. For this purpose a considerable force 
was sent to Camden, under the command oi Lord Rawdon^ 



UNITED STATES. 251 

Several severe skirmishes took place between small par- 
ties, in one of vphich colonel Buford was defeated by a 
body of British cavalry, under colonel Tarleton ; in others, 
the American general Smnpter^ distinguished himself. 

27. General Gates, who had been appointed to the chief 
command of the southern army, in place of general Lin- 
coln, arrived at the American camp in vSouth Carolina, in 
the latter part of July, and troops were collected in order 
to oppose the progress of the British. Lord Cornwallis, 
hearing of these movements, repaired to Camden, to re- 
inforce lord Rawdon. On the 16th of August, a severe 
engagement took place between the two armies, in which 
the Americans were defeated, with the loss of 700 or 800 
men, am<!ng whom was the Baron de Kalb, a Prussian, in 
the American service, and the second officer in command. 
The British lost about half as many. The greater part 
of the American force consisted of militia, who lied at the 
first fire, and could not be rallied. General Gates, with 
the feeble remains of his army, retreated to Hillsborough, 
in North Carolina ; and lord Cornwallis, for some time 
after the battle of Camden, remained inactive. 

28. In July, M. de Ternay with a French fleet, consist- 
ing of seven ships of the line, besides frigates, and 6,000 
land troop's, commanded by Count de Rochambeau, arrived 
at Rhode Island. This gave new life to the American 
counsels and arms ; but the fleet suddenly returned to 
France, and all hope of naval assistance vanished. The 
land forces remained, and co-operated in the final reduc- 
tion of the British army. 

29. The most flagrant instance of treachery during the 
war, occurred this year. This was the plot of general 
Arnold for delivering into the hands of the enemy the 
important fortress of West Point, on the Hudson. Arnold 
had distinguished himself at the siege of Quebec, and also 
at Saratoga, where he was severely wounded. He was 
afterwards af»pointed to a command in Philadelphia, where 
his oppressive conduct had subjected him to a trial by a 
court martial, by which he M'as sentenced to be repri- 
manded. By these proceedings he was highly exasperated, 
and determined on revonge. General Washington still 
valued him for his bravery and former services, and, at 
his request, not suspecting his intentions, intrusted him 
with the command of West Point. He soon entered into 



252 UNITED STATES. 

a negociation with general Clinton for the surrender of 
that post ; but happily the plot was discovered, in season 
to prevent the disastrous consequences which must have 
followed from its execution. 

30. The unfortunate major Andre, the British agent in 
this negociation, being apprehended and convicted as » 
spy, his life was forfeited by the laws of war, and he was 
condemned and executed. The fate of this heroic and 
amiable young officer, was deeply regretted by the Ame- 
ricans, as well as by the English. Arnold escaped to the 
enemy, and received the reward of his treason in being 
appointed a brigadier-general in the British army. 

31. — (1781.) — The operations of the war during the 
campaign of 1781, were chiefly in the south, and were of 
great importance. Early in the year, Arnold was sent on 
a predatory expedition to Virginia, and afterwards on an- 
other against Connecticut^ during which he destroyed much 
property, and burnt the town of Aezo London. 

32. In the autumn of 1780, general Greene was appoint- 
ed to the chief command of the southern army. The first 
action, after he assumed the command, was fought at the 
Cow-Pens, by the Americans under colonel Morgan, against 
the English under colonel Tarleton, who was defeated, 
with the loss of 300 killed, and 500 taken prisoners. 
The loss of the Americans in killed and wounded, was 
only 72. 

33. The two armies, under Greene and Cornwallis., met 
near Guilford court-house, in North Carolina, and on the 
15th of March a battle was fought, in which the British 
lost upwards of 400 men, yet they remained masters of 
the field. The loss of the Americans, who were mostly 
militia, was about equal. After this battle, general Greene 
marched to Camden, where Lord Rawdon was fortified 
with 900 men. The British commander sallied and at- 
tacked him. The loss on each side was between 200 and 
300 men ; but the British had the advantage. — In Septem- 
ber general Greene obtained an important victory over 
the British under colonel Stuart, at the Eutaw Springes. 
The loss of the enemy in killed, wounded, and captured, 
amounted to about 1,000 ; that of the Americans to about 
half as many. This action nearly finished the war in 
South Carolina. 



UNITED STATES. 25.3 

34. After the battle of Guilford, Loj-d Cornwallis pro- 
ceeded towards Virginia^ to join the British army under 
general Philiips ; and arriving at Petersburg in May, he 
took the command of the united forces. Alter some pre- 
datory warfare, he encamped with his army at Yorktown 
aad Gloucester Pointy where he fortified himself in the best 
manner he was able. 

35. A plan of combined operations against the British, had 
been previously concerted by generals Washington^ Knox^ 
Rochambeau, and other officers. The point of attack was not 
absolutely determined on ; but after lord Cornwallis had 
collected a large army in Virginia, Washington resolved 
to concentrate his forces against him. At the same time 
it was given out, tbat New York was to be the point of 
attack, in order to induce the eastern and middle states to 
exert themselves in furnishing supplies, and to deceive 
Sir Henry Clinton, and prevent him from sending rein- 
forcements to Cornwallis. Washington wrote letters to 
general Greene and others stating his intention to attack 
New York, and contrived that these letters should be 
intercepted by the British commander. The project was 
successful, and by a variety of military manoeuvres, in 
which he completely out-generalled Clinton, he increased 
his apprehensions about New York, and prevented his 
sending assistance to Cornwall's. 

36. Having, for a considerable time, kept Clinton in 
perpetual alarm in New York, Washington suddenly quit- 
ted his camp at White Plains, crossed the Hudson with 
his army, and passing rapidly through New Jersey and 
Pennsylvania, arrived at Elk river, the head quarters of 
a considerable army under the Marquis de Lafayette. A 
part of the forces embarked and sailed for Virginia ; the 
rest marched by land. 

37. At this moment Washington heard of the arrival of 24 
French ships of the line under Count de Grasse. in the Chesa- 
peake, .admiral Gruves^ with 19 British ships of the line, 
arrived soon after. The two fleets had a slight engage- 
ment, in which the French had the ad^'antage, and were 
leit masters of the navigation ol" the bay, A body of 
French troops was landed to co-operate with the Ameri- 
cans Tiie whole comhined force, und -r Washington, 
closely investing the British ar:ny at Y i-krown, including 
cjonlinentals, French, and militia, amounted to about 16,000. 

22 



254 UNITED STATES. 

38. The British army being blockaded by land and sea, 
the American forces opened the first batteries upon them 
early in October, with such effect as to silence a part of 
their artillery. Two British redoubts were taken. The 
second parallel was begun, on the night of the 11th ; and 
such was the tremendous effect of the American artillery, 
that the British works were demolished, their guns si- 
lenced, and no hope of relief or escape remained. On 
the 17th of October, lord Cornwallis proposed a cessation 
of hostilities ; and on the 19th, articles of capitulation 
were signed, by which the British array, military stores, 
and shipping, fell into the hands of general Washington. 
The whole number of prisoners, exclusive of seamen, 
amounted to 7,073 ; but many of them, at the time of the 
surrender, were incapable of duty. 

39. As the reduction of this division of the British forces, 
was considered as deciding the war and establishing the 
independence of the United States, the news was every 
where received with emotions of inexpressible joy. Di- 
vine service was performed in all the American brigades ; 
and the commander in chief recommended that all who 
were not on duty, should join in the worship, " with a 
serious deportment and that sensibility of heart, which 
the recollection of the surprising and particular inter- 
position of Divine Providence in our favour claims." A 
day of public thanksgiving was recommended by congress, 
and observed throughout the United States ; and general 
Washington liberated all persons under arrest, that all 
might partake in the general joy. 

40. As no rational expectation on the part of the British 
of conquering the United States, now remained, the mili- 
tary operations which succeeded, were of little conse- 
quence. A change of the ministry took place in England, 
favourable to this country. General Carleton was appoint- 
ed to the command of the British forces in America ; and 
on the 30th of November, 1782, provisional articles of 
peace were signed, by which the independence and sove- 
reignty of the United States were acknowledged. On the 
3d of September, 1783, a definitive treaty of peace was 
concluded, which secured to the United States the objects 
for which they contended, and gave them a rank among 
independent nations. 



UMITED STATES. 255 

41. Thus ended the revolutionary war ; a war which 
began in the injudicious and tyrannical endeavour to pro- 
cure a revenue from the colonies, and which terminated 
in their freedom and sovereignty ; a war which cost Great 
Britain, in addition to the loss of her colonies, the sum of 
about klOO,000 sterling, and about 50,000 subjects; a 
war in which America lost many lives and much treasure, 
and endured every hardship and suffering, incident to so 
arduous a struggle, for which she was so ill prepared; a 
war, the issue of which will remain an encouragement to 
the oppressed to endeavour to rid themselves of op- 
pression, and a lesson to those who, unmindful of the rights 
of the people, would lift against them the arm of power, 
and force them to a compliance with their unjust demands ; 
a war, to use the language of Mr. Pitt, " which was con- 
ceived in injustice, nurtured in folly, and whose footsteps 
were marked with slaughter and devastation. The nation 
was drained of its best blood, and its vital resources, for, 
which nothing was received in return, but a series of in- 
efficient victories and of disgraceful defeats ; victories 
obtained over men fighting in the holy cause of liberty, 
or defeats which filled the land with mourning, for the 
loss of dear and valuable relations, slain in a detested and 
impious quarrel." 

SECTION v. 

The Army disbanded : The Constitution formed : Washings 
ton's Administration : Adams'' s Administration. — From A. 
D. 1783 to 1801. 

1. When the American army was to be disbanded, new 
and serious difficulties arose concerning the payment of 
the arrears of their wages and rations. The want of re- 
sources to carry on the war, and of supreme power to 
lay and collect taxes, had driven congress to the expe- 
pient of emitting vast sums in biiis of credit, which de- 
preciated so much as to be of scarcely anj^ value ; and the 
interruption of commerce, with vast quantities of paper 
money, banished, for a time, all gold and silver from cir- 
culation. The depreciated currency in which the troops 
were paid, deprived them of a great part of what was 
really their due ; and neither officers nor soldiers could 



256 UNITED STATES. 

make a decent appearance in point of dress, while the 
families of many were suffering at home. 

2. The officers of the army, reposing confidence in the 
faith of their country, remained quiet till the close of the 
war; but much agitation and alarm were, at length, ex- 
cited among them, by the apprehension that they were to 
be disbanded without having a settlement of their ac- 
counts, or any provision for the payment of what was due 
to them. In this state of feeling, an alarming attempt was 
made to stir them up to violent measures. 

3. At this crisis, the virtues of Washington shone forth 
with peculiar and unrivalled lustre. He assembled the 
officers; exhorted them to moderation in demanding their 
arrears ; promised to exert all his influence in their favour ,• 
and conjured them, "• as they valued their honour, as they 
respected the rights of humanity, and as they regarded 
the military and national character of the American states, 
to express their utmost detestation of the men who were 
attempting to open the flood-gates of civil discord, and 
deluge their rising empire with blood." 

4. These words, coming from one whom they had been 
accustomed to reverence, were weighty and decisive. 
After his speech, the officers voted him an address of 
thanks, and resolved that they continued to have an un- 
shaken confidence in the justice of congress and their 
country. Congress had but little money, and no effectual 
means of raising it ; but they put the accounts of the army 
in a train for settlement ; and decreed that the officers 
should receive, after the end of the war, five years' ad- 
ditioual pay, and each soldier eighty dollars besides his 
wages. 

5. The 3d of November was fixed upon for disbanding 
the army : the day preceding, Washington issued his fare- 
well orders to his troops, replete with friendly advice and 
affectionate wishes for their present and future welfare. 
Having afterwards taken an affecting leave of his officers, 
he repaired to Annapolis^ where congress was then sitting ; 
delivered to the president his military commission ; and' 
declared that he was no longer invested with any public 
character. After this declaration, retiring, followed by 
the gratitude of his country, and the applause and admira- 
tion of the world, to his estate at Mount Vernon, he addicted 
himself to the peaceful pursuits of agriculture. 



UNITED STATES. 25T 

6. After the close of the war, when the states were 
released from the presence of dang-er, the government, 
under the Articles of Confederation, was found to be weak, 
and wholly insufficient for the public exigencies. The au- 
thority of congress was reduced to a mere name ; a large 
public debt had been contracted, but no provision had been 
made for paying either the the principal or the interest. 
As congress had no revenue, they could give no effectual 
value to their paper currency ; and the public securities fell 
to a very small proportion of their nominal value, as it was 
regarded as extremely doubtful, whether the government 
would ever be able to redeem them. 

7. In this state of affairs, most of the army notes were 
sold for about a 6th or an 8th of their nominal value ; so 
that the brave men who had fought the battles of their 
country, and endured hardships, cold, and hunger ; and who 
had repeatedly received, of congress, solemn assurances 
of recompense for their toils and dangers, were at last 
forced to sell their securities for a mere trifle, in order to 
keep their families from distressing want. 

8. The necessity of a more efficient general govern- 
ment was, at length, extensively felt; and in accordance 
with a proposition of the legislature of Virginia, commis- 
sioners from several of the states met, in 1786, at Annapo- 
lis, to form a general system of commercial regulations. 
But judging that their authority was too limited to accom- 
plish any desirable purpose, they adjourned, with instruc- 
tions to advise the states to appoint delegates with more 
ample powers, to meet the next year at Philadelphia. 

9. Accordingly delegates from the different states as- 
sembled in that city, in May, 1787, and elected general 
Washington, who was a member of their body from Vir- 
ginia, for their president. After four months' deliberation, 
the Federal Constitution was, on the 17th of September, 
unanimously agreed to by the members of the convention; 
and being presented to congress, it was, by that body, 
transmitted to the several states for their consideration. 
Being accepted and ratified, in 1788, by eleven members 
of the confederacy, it became the constitution of the 
United States. 

10. According to the constitution, the several states 
elected their delegates to congress ; and by a unanimous 
vote, Washington was chosen the first president. When 

22* 



258 UISITED STATES. 

the appointment was officially announced to him, all 
though unwilling to leave his retirement, he yielded to 
the unanimous voice of his country ; and bidding adieu to 
Mount Vernon, to private life, and to domestic felicity, he 
proceeded, without delay, to New York, where congress 
was assembled. In his progress to that city, he was met 
by numerous bodies of people, who hailed him as the 
father of his country ; triumphal arches were erected to 
commemorate his achievements; aged women blessed 
him as he passed ; and virgins, strewing flowers in his 
way, expressed their hope that he, who had defended the 
Injured rights of their parents, would not refuse his pro- 
tection to their children. 

11. On the 30th of April, he was inaugurated president 
of the United States. The ceremony was performed in 
the open gallery of the city hall, in JVew York, where the 
oath was administered to him, in the presence of a count- 
less multitude of spectators. The importance of the act, 
the novelty of the scene, the dignity of the general's char- 
acter, the gravity of his manner, and the reverence with 
which he bowed to kiss the sacred volume, impressed 
upon the transaction a solemnity never before witnessed in 
America. 

12. The joy of the nation at the establishment of the 
new government, with Washington at its head, was 
scarcely exceeded by that of any preceding event. His 
personal influence was such as to give the government a 
character both at home and abroad ; and he possessed the 
inestimable talent of collecting the wisest counsellors, 
and of selecting the best opinions for the direction of 
his own conduct. At the same time that he was elected 
president, John Adarns,' who had borne a distinguished 
part in the revolution, was chosen vice-president. The 
other principal officers, at the first organization of the 
government, were Thomas Jefferson, secretary of state , 
Aiexandrr Hamilton, secretary of the treasury ; Henry 
Knox, secretary of war ; Edmund Randolph, attorney gen- 
era! ; an;! John Jay, chief justice of the United States. 

13. The beneficial effects of the new government, as 
administered by Washington and his assistants, were soon 
felt. Public confidence was restored ; commerce revived; 
the national debt, incurred during the i-evolutionary war, 
was funded, and brought, at once, to its par value ; and 



UNITED STATES. 259 

the United States suddenly rose from a state of embar- 
rassment and depression, to a high degree of national 
prosperity. 

14. In 1790, the country was involved in a sanguinary 
war with the Indians to the north of the Ohio, who ob- 
tained a victory over general Harmei\ and another, in the 
following year, (1791) over general St. Clair ; but general 
Wayne, who succeeded to the command of the army, com- 
pletely routed the savages, and negociated a treaty of 
peace, in 1795, at Greenviile. 

15. While the United States wei'e engaged in war with 
the Indians, they were ^so involved in new difficulties 
by the convulsions of/Europe. The French revolution 
had commenced, and'that notion was under the wild mis- 
rule of the Directory. Claims were made on this country 
for assistance ; Jtiie feelings of a large portion of the 
community were warmly enlisted on the side of France, 
and would have urged the nation into hostilities with 
England. But it was the policy of VVashington''s adminis- 
tration to remain neutral ; yet this course of the govern- 
ment met with opposition, and increased the hostility of 
the tvvo'parties, into which the country had begun to be 
diWded. 

16. Washington having been twice unanimously elected 
president, and having administered the government with 
great advantage to the country, near the close of his 
second term of four years, declined a re-election, in a 
valedictory address to the people, replete with maxims 
of political wisdom, and breathing sentiments of the warm- 
est affect' on for his country. At the expiration of his 
term, he again withdrew to his residence at Mount Ver- 
non, and was succeeded in office by John Adams, 

17. During Mr. Adams's administration, the French 
revolutionary government, disappointed in its object of 
engac^ing tb.e United States in the war with England, pur- 
sued a course of insult and aggression towards them, which 
ended in open hostilities. The American government, at 
length, adopted measures of deience and retaliation ; the 
navy was increased, and a provisional army was raiv;ed, of 
which general Washington was aj)polnted commander-in- 
chief A few months afterwards, the directory government 
of France was overthrown, and the disputes between that 
country and this, were amicably adjusted. 



260 UNITED STATES. 

18. Not long after having accepted the command of 
the army, Washington died suddenly, at Mount Vernon, on 
the 14th of December, 1799, in the 68th year of his age. 
The news of the death of the great American general, 
statesman, and patriot, produced an impression that is 
without a parallel in America. The people of the United 
States, in accordance with the recommendation of con- 
gress, wore crape on the left arm 30 days, as a token of 
spontaneous and unaffected grief; eulogies were deliver- 
ed, and funeral processions celebrated throughout the 
country ; thus exhibiting the affecting and sublime spec- 
tacle of a nation in mourning for the loss of one whom 
they had been accustomed to regard as the Father of his 
countrj^ 

19 For several years the nation had been much agi- 
tated by the conflicts of parties. At the time of the 
adoption of the federal constitution, those in favour of it, 
were styled/erfera/ists, and those against it anti-federalists ; 
but the terms by which the two parties have since been 
generally designated, arejederalists and democrats or republi- 
cans. These parties have differed from each other, both with 
regard to the foreign relations of the country, and on va- 
rious subjects of domestic policy. The federalists accused 
the republicans of an undue partiality for France ; and 
the latter charged the former with a similar partiality for 
Great Britain. A commercial treaty with Great Britain, 
negociated by Mr. Jay, in 1794, was severely censured by 
many in this country, and kindled the animosity of the 
parties. 

20. Many of the measures of Mr. Adams's administra- 
tion, relating both to foreign and domestic policy, met 
with much opposition. Some of the acts which excited 
the most dissatisfaction, were raising a standing army, 
imposing a direct tax, and enacting the "• Alien and Se- 
dition laws." In 1801, a revolution took place in the 
administration of public affairs ; and the republican party 
having become the majority, succeeded in elevating their 
candidate, Tko:vas Jefferson, to the presidency, in opposi- 
tion to Mr. Adams. 



UNITED STATES. 261 



SECTION VI. 

Jefferson'' s Administration : Madison's Administration ; War. 
with, Great Britain : — Monroe : Adams. — From A. D. 
1801. 

1. At the time when Mr. Jefferson acceded to the pre- 
sidency, the state of the countiy was highly prosperous ; 
and it so continued during the first term of his official 
career ; near the end of which, he was re-elected by an 
almost unanimous vote. For a number of years there 
had been raging between Great Britain and France, a war 
which had involved nearly all the nations of Europe. 
America had endeavoured to maintain a neutrality towards 
the belligerents, and peaceably to carry on a commerce 
with them. Being the great neutral trader, she had an 
interest in extending the privileges of neutrality, which 
the belligerents, on the contrary, were inclined to con- 
tract within the narrowest limits. 

2. In May, 1806, the British government declared all 
the ports and rivers, from the Elbe in Germany to Brest 
in France, to be blockaded, and all American vessels trading 
with these interdicted ports, were liable to seizure and 
condemnation. In the ensuing November, the emperor 
of France, issued his Berlin Decree, declaring the British 
islands in a state of blockade, and prohibiting all inter- 
course with them. Next followed, in November, 1807, 
the British Orders in Council, by which all neutral vessels 
trading with France, were compelled to stop at a British 
port and pay a duty. In consequence of this measure, 
Bonaparte issued, in December, the Milan Decree, by 
which every vessel, which should submit to British search, 
or consent to any pecuniary exactions whatever, was con- 
fiscated. 

3. In the same month, [December] on the recommen- 
dation of Mr. Jefferson, congress laid an embargo on all 
the shipping of the United States; in March, 1809, the 
embargo was removed, and non-intercourse with France 
and Great Britain, was substituted. 

4. While matters continued in this stnte, new causes of 
provocation continually occurred. The trade of the United 
States was harassed by both of the belligerents; and the 
government was accused in Britain of partiality to France, 



262 UNITED STATES. 

and in France of pusillanimously submitting to the insults 
of Britain. 

5. But one species of injury, which was keenly felt and 
loudly complained of in this' country, the United States 
States suffered exclusively from Britain. This was the 
impressment of her seamen on board the American ves- 
sels, by British men-of-war. The similarity of language 
readers it difficult to distinguish American from British 
seamen ; but there is reason to believe that, on some oc- 
casions, the British officers were not anxious to make the 
distinction; being determined, at all hazards, to procure 
men ; and American seamen were compelled to serve in 
the British navy, and fight the battles of Britain. 

6. The British, on the other hand, complained that 
their seamen escaped on board American vessels, to which 
they were encouraged, and where they were carefully 
concealed ; and they contended for the right of searching 
Ameiican merchant vessels for their own run-away sea- 
men. This custom had been long practised ; was a fruit- 
ful source of irritation ; and was submitted to with extreme 
reluctance on the part of the Americans, who maintained 
that, under British naval officers, it was often conducted 
in the most arbitrary manner, with little regard to the 
feelings of those against whom it was enforced ; and that, 
under the colour of this search, native seamen were fre- 
quently dragged on board British vessels. 

7. The custom of searching for British seamen, had 
hitherto been confined to private vessels; but in 1807, it 
was ascertained that four seamen had deserted from the 
British service, and entered on board the Chesapeake^ an 
American frigate, commanded by commodore Barron, and 
carrying 36 guns. Captain Humphreys of the Leopard^ an 
English frigate of 50 guns, in compliance with the orders 
of admiral Berkley, followed the Chesapeake beyond the 
Capes of Virginia, and after demanding the deserters, 
fired a broadside upon the American frigate, and killed 
and wounded about 20 men. The Chesapeake struck her 
colotirs, and the four seamen were given up. 

8. This outrage occasioned a general indignation through- 
out the country ; and was deemed, by many, in conjunction 
with other causes, a sufficient ground for declaring war. 
The president issued a prociamaiion, ordering all British 
vessels of war to quit the waters of the United States, and 



UNITED STATES. 263 

forbidding' all intercourse between them and the inhabit- 
ants. The British government disavowed the attack on 
the Chesapeake ; jet the measures taken with regard to 
the affair, were not satisfactory to the government of this 
country. 

9. In 1809, Mr. Jefferson having declined a re-election, 
was succeeded by James Madison^ who had been a leading 
man in the late administration, and who pursued the same 
general policy. At the commencement of the new ad- 
ministration, an arrangement was made with Mr. Erskine, 
the British minister, by which the American government 
was induced to renew the trade with England ; but this 
arrangement was afterwards disavowed on the part of 
Britain. The succeeding negociator, Mr. Jackson, having, 
soon after his arrival, used offensive language, the presi- 
dent declined having any further correspondence with 
him. An unhappy rencounter between the American and 
English ships of war, the President and the Little Belt, served 
to increase the unfriendly sentiments of the two countries. 

10. The prospect of an amicable adjustment of existing 
difhculties between the United States and Great Britain, 
continuing to become daily more dark and unpromising, 
congress met, pursuant to adjournment, on the 25th of 
May, 1812; and on the 1st of June, the president sent a 
message to that body, strongly recommending a declara- 
tion of war. The principal grounds for it, as stated in 
the message, were the impressment of American seamen 
by the British ; the blockading of the ports of their ene- 
mies ; the orders in council ; and a suspicion that the 
Indians had been instigated to acts of hostility by British 
agents. 

11. The bill for declaring war passed the house of 
representatives, 79 to 49, and the senate, 19 to 13; and 
on the 18th of June, the day after it passed the senate, it 
was signed by the president. Five days after the declar- 
ation of war, the British orders in council were repealed, 
in consequence of the decrees of Berlin and Milan having 
been revoked. 

12. The minority of congress opposed the declaration 
of war, on the ground of its being, in their view, unneces- 
sary and impolitic ; they maintained also that the ag- 
gressions of the French had been greater than those of 
the English ; and the" entered a long protest against the 



264 UNITED STATES. 

measure. A considerable proportion of the people of the 
United States sympathized, in their views, with this mi- 
nority ; the war was, consequently, prosecuted with much 
less energy and success than it might have been, if there 
had beep a unanimity in its favour. 

13. Notwithstanding the length of time during which 
hostilities had been meditated, they were commenced in 
a very imperfect state of preparation on the part of the 
American government ; and in consequence, the operations 
of the American armies, by land, during the first year, 
■were wholly unsuccessful and disastrous. 

14. On the 12th of July, general Hull^ with an army of 
upwards of 2,000 men, invaded Canada; and on the 16th 
of August, he surrendered, with the whole of his troops, 
to the British. A second attempt to invade the province, 
was made by general .Va7i Rensselaer^ who, with about 
1,000 men, crossed the Niagara in November, and attack- 
ed the British, at Queenstown ; after an obstinate engage- 
ment, he was obliged to surrender, with his army. In this 
engagement the British general Brock was killed- 

15. .While the operations of the troops of the United 
States, in Canada, were so extremely unfortunate and mor- 
tifying, brilliant success attended the American flag on the 
ocean. In August, the frigate Co?is/iiMf/ow, commanded by- 
captain Hidl, captured the British frigate the Guerriere. In 
October, the frigate United States, commanded by captain 
Decatur, took the British frigate the Macedonian. In Novem- 
ber, the British sloop the Frolic was captured by the sloop 
Wasp^ under captain Jniies ; but the Wasp was immediate- 
ly after taken by the Poictiers, a British seventy-four. In 
December, the Cofist't-dion. commanded by captain Bain- 
bridge., captured the British frigate the Java In these four 
engagements, the total of the British loss in killed and 
wounded, was 423; that of the Americans only 73. 

16. — (1813.) — The operations of the war during this 
year, were productive of alternate successes and reverses. 
In January, a detachment of about 800 men, under 
general Winchester., was surprised and defeated by the 
British and Indians und r general Pro'to-., at Frenchtown, 
on the river Raisin. Those who had not fallen, amounting 
to about 500, surrendered prisoners, a great part of whom 
.were inhumanly m>issacrpd by the Indians. 

17. In April, a detachment of 1,700 American troops^ 
nnder general Fi&e, after some severe fighting, took pos- 



UNITED STATES. 265 

session of York, in Upper Canada, and destroyed a large 
quantity of public stores. By the explosion of a mine, 
prepared for the purpose, general Pike, together with 
about 100 Americans, was killed. The British lost about 
700, killed, wounded, and captured. — Colonel Dudley 
being detached from Fort Meigs, with 800 men, to attack 
the enemy's battery, was surrounded by a large army of 
Indians, under Tecumseh, and was defeated, with the loss 
of most of his troops. 

18. In Mny, an attack was made upon Sackeifs Harbour 
by about 1,000 British troops, under Sir George Frevust, 
who was repulsed with considerable loss, by the Ameri- 
cans under general Brown. Two days before this event, 
Fort George, in Canada, was taken by the Americans under 
general Boyd and colonel Milkr. The British, who were 
commanded by general Vincent, lost nearly 1,000 ia killed, 
wounded, and captured. A few days afterwards, generals 
Chandler and Winder, who had advanced with a consider- 
able force, were surprised in the night, not far from 
the fort, by the British, under general Vincent, and were 
both taken pri:*oners. 

19. The most brilliant achievement, during this year, 
was the defeat of the British naval force on Lake Ene, in 
September, by commodore Perry. The British fleet con- 
sisted of SIX vessels, having 63 guns; that of the Americans 
of nine vessels, with 56 guns. The conflict, which lasted 
three hours, was tremendous, but the victory was com- 
plete ; the British force, being reduced to almost a total 
wreck, fell entirely into the hands of the Amr!rican«, who 
were, by this achievement, rendered masters of the lake. 

20. After this victory, general Harrison embarked his 
main army on board the American squadron, landed on 
the Canadian shore, and in October, near the Thunics, de-, 
feated and dispersed the British army under general Proc- 
tor. In this action the enemy sustained a severe loss, 
and the celebrated Indian chief, Te.ciuns'h. was kil.ed But 
the Americans were nlterwnrds repulsed at Willidinsb-rg. 

21. Groat preparations had been made U^r the conquest 
of Canada, nnd^'r gener;)ls fV-lkinson and Hampf >- 7i ; but 
nothing of importance was effected; and a disagreement 
between the two generals, preveoted tliat concert wrdch 
was necessary to insure success. The village of A''ew--rk, in 
Canada being burnt by the Americans, the British crossed 

23 



266 UNITED STATES. 

over, and, in retaliation, burnt Buffalo and some other 
villages. During this year the British, under admiral 
Cockburn, committed various depredations in the south, 
and on the shores of the Chesapeake ; but they were re- 
pulsed at Crany island. 

22. The English were more successful on the ocean, 
during this year, than during the preceding. The Ameri- 
can flag, however, was not, in any instance, disgraced ; 
nor were our ships and men found inferior to those of 
Britain of equal force. In February, the Hornet, com- 
manded by captain Lawrence, captured the British sloop 
the Peacock. In June, the Chesapeake, under captain Law- 
rence, was captured by the Shannon, commanded by captain 
Broke. In August, the Argus was captured by the English 
sloop the Pelican; and in September, the British brig the 
Boxer surrendered to the Enterprise. 

23. — (1814.) — The campaign of 1814, was distinguished 
by more severe fighting in Canada, than had before oc- 
curred. On the 2d of July, the Americans, under general 
Brown, having taken Fort Erie, proceeded to attack the 
British under general Drummond, at Chippewa, where, on 
the 6th, an obstinate engagement took place, which ter- 
minated in favour of the Americans. On the 25th of the 
month, a more sanguinary and warmly contested battle 
was fought, at Bridgewater, by the Americans, under gen- 
erals Brown and Scott, and the British, under generals 
Drummond and Riall. The British were forced to retreat, 
with the loss of about 900 in killed, wounded, and taken. 
The American army was also so much weakened, that it 
fell back to Fort Erie, which the British afterwards at- 
tempted to storm, but they were repulsed, with a severe 
loss. This was the last important operation of the war on 
this frontier. 

24. Having received large reinforcements from the 
troops which had been employed under the duke of Wel- 
lington, in Spain, Sir George Prevost, now advanced with 
an army of 14,000 men, to carry offensive war into the 
United States; and his first attempt was on Plattsburg. 
The operations of this army were accompanied by those 
of the British naval force on Lake Champlain, consisting 
of 96 guns and 1,050 men, commanded by commodore 
Down'e. This force was totally defeated by the American 
fleet, having 86 guns and 826 men, under thie command 



UNITED STATES. 267 

of commodore Macdonough. During the engagement be- 
tween the fleets, Sir George Prevost attacked the forts of 
Plattsburg, but was effectually repulsed by the Americans, 
under general Macomb. The loss of the British in killed, 
wounded, and deserters, was estimated at 2,500; while 
that of the Americans, both on the land and water, was 
only 231. 

25. In August, a British fleet of about 60 sail arrived 
in the Chesapeake, and an army of about 5,000 men, under 
general Ross., landed in the Patuxent, about 40 miles from 
the city of Washington. Having easily put to flight the 
American militia, under general Winder; at Bladensburg^ 
the enemy entered Washington, burnt the capitol, the 
president's house, and other public buildings, and retired 
without molestation. In September, about a fortnight 
after this transaction, the British army, to the number of 
about 7,000, under general Ross and admiral Cockburn, 
made a similar attempt on Baltimore ; but after gaining 
some advantages, they were finally repulsed. In this at- 
tempt general Ross was killed. 

26. On the ocean the American flag maintained its repu- 
tation, and in no instance yielded to an inferior or an equal 
force. The American frigate the Essex, however, was 
captured by the British frigate the Phebe and the sloop 
Cherub, of a superior force ; and the frigate President, by 
a squadron of the enemy; but the British vessels of war 
the Epervier, Avon, Reindeer, Cyane, Levant, and Penguin., 
were taken by the Americans. 

27. As the war between the United States and Great 
Britain, was a branch of the great European quarrel, it 
naturally fell to the ground when that quarrel ceased. The 
matters in dispute between the two countries, related to 
maritime and neutral rights ; but wilh regard to these 
subjects, there was no longer any cause of difference, as 
the world was at peace. On the restoration of peace in 
Europe, both parties began to think seriously about ending 
the war; and the emperor of Russia offered his services 
as mediator. In April, 1813. commissioners, on the part 
of the United States, were appointed to meet others from 
England, at Gottenburg : but the place of meeting was 
afterwards changed to Ghent, where a treaty was finally 
signed on the 24th of December, 1814. 



268 UNITED STATES. 

28. While the ne,o:ociation was in progress, a large 
armament, under iht- command of Sir Edward Facktnham^ 
was fiilfd out !'V' Great Britain, for an attack on New 
Oi'iarts^ with tiue iniention, apparently, of ending the war 
with «ome ec!;ii ; but the design met with a most signal 
and fatal defeat. The Eritisb, after enduring great fa- 
tigues and numerous difficult'es, and sustaining some des- 
perate encoi^nters, assaulted the works thrown up for 
the defence of the city, on the 8th of January, 1816, 
when they were dreadiViUy cut to pieces and repulsed by 
the Americans, under general Jackson. The loss of the 
enemy in killed, wounded, and captured, amounted to 
about 2 ,600 ; among the slain were the commander-in- 
chief, general Pa':kenham^ and other principal officers. 
The loss of the Americans was only seven killed, and six 
wounded. 

29. This was the last important operation of the war : 
the joyful news of peace having happily put an end to 
further hostilities. 

30. In the treaty of Ghent, no allusion is made to the 
causes of the war, each party being left in possession of 
its real or imaginary rights. In case, therefore, that Great 
Britain should be engaged in another European war, the 
questions between the two countries, which are now set 
at rest by peace, might be again revived, and would, it is 
to be apprehended, lead to new difficulties. 

31. But as it is evident that Great Britain and the 
United States, though they may harass and annoy each 
other, can never make such an impression as to compel a 
peace, it may be hopei they will be warned by experience 
to avoid useless wars; that they will exist hereafter, not 
for each other's annoyance; but for each other's benetit; 
and that their policy will be to avoid every cause of mis- 
chief and contention, and draw closer every tie, whether 
of consanguinity, religion, or interest, which can iirmly 
unite them in a lasting peace. 

32. Mr. Madison, after fiUitig the office of president of 
the United States during eight years, was succeeded, in 
1817, by James Monroe., whose administration was gene- 
rally popular and prosperous, and who was succeeded, in 
1826, by John Quincy Adams. 

33. After the restoration of peace, the country soon 
returned to its former prosperity: commerce revived; 



UNITED STATES. 26f 

agriculture and manufactures became prosperous ; the at- 
tention of the people has since been turned to various ob- 
jects of internal improvement ; education, literature, and 
the useful arts have been fostered and promoted ; new 
states have been added to the confederacy ; and never 
were the prospects of the country more favourable than 
at present. Party spirit also, which, for a long time, em- 
bittered both public and private life, has, since the return 
of peace, in a great measure, happily disappeared ; and 
the evils of it are probably less felt now throughout the 
country, than at any former period, since the first term of 
Wasbinsfton's administration. 



23* 



5^70^ ECCLESIASnCAL HISTORY. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, 

SECTION I. 

From the Birth of Christ to the year 325. 

1. Ecclesiastical History is the history of the Church of 
Christ, or of Christianity, from its first promulgation to 
the present time. This period, embracing about eighteen 
centuries, may be distinguished into four great divisions. 

2. The^r."i division extends from the }>irth of Christ to 
A. D. 325, when, during the reign of Constantine the Great, 
Christianity became the religion of the Reman empire. 
This is the era of primitive Christianity, the professors of 
which, compared with those of the subsequent period, were 
distinguished for the simpiicity of their doctrines, and the 
purity of their lives. During this period, Christianity was 
so far from be ng protected by the civil government, that 
it was subjected by it to the most cruel persecutions. 

3. The second dhision comprises the period from the 
time of Constantine to the year 755, when the supremacy 
of the Pope was acknowledged, and his temporal dominion 
established. During this period, Christianit}' became cor- 
rupted bv the infusion of a secular or worldly spirit among 
its professors; and also by incorporating with it the philo- 
sophy and superstitions of paganism. 

4. The third di-aision extends from the commencement 
X)f the temporal dominion of the Pope to the Reformation^ 
which began in 1517. This period was the reign of ig- 
norance, S!!perstitioni and ecclesiastical tyranny. The 
greater part of it is comprised in what is termed the Dark 
Ages^ during which the lights both of religion and know- 
ledge, were almost extinguished. 

5. The foiirth divisi-ni includes the interval between 
the era of the Reformation and the present time. The 
progress of the Reformation has been accompanied by the 
revival of learning, and a variety of improvements in the 
state of society. During this period have appeared the 
various denominations into which the Protestants are now 
divided. 

6. In the 753d year of Rome, and during the reign of 
Augustus Ccesar, our Saviour, Jesus Christ, was born. The 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 271 

place of his nativity was Bethlehem, in Judea, and his 
reputed father was Joseph, a carpenter of Galilee. His 
birth took place at a time when Roman literatnre was 
in its zenith, and when the whole world was at peace. 
Before this event, Jvdea and most other parts of the 
then known world had become subject or tributary to the 
Romans. 

7. At the time of the advent of our Saviour, an expec- 
tation extensively prevailed, that an extraordinary per- 
sonage w;is about to appear in the worl.d The Jews, 
particularly, were expecting* the coming" of ih.p it Messiah^ 
who, they imagined, would be a temporal prince, clothed 
with worldly splendour and power, and would deliver their 
nation from subjection to the Romans. 

8. The Jews, at this period, were divided into three 
sects, the Phur'isees^ Sad ducees^ and Es-senes'. The Essenes 
were the Therapeu'tce of Jndea, a class of men who took 
no concern in political affairs, and professed to live in 
contempiTjtive retirement, and to attempt to purify the 
soul by abstinence, silence, and other kinds of mortifica- 
tion. 

9. The Sadducees \vere unhelievers in religion. They 
admitted, however, the authority of the books of Moses, 
but denied the sacred charactr^r of the other parts 
of the Old Testament, and rejected the doctrine of a fu- 
ture life, and the existence of angels and spirits. Many 
of them were learned, rich, and powerful. 

10. But the most popular and numerous of the three 
sects were the Pharisees^ who presided in the schools, and 
were the chief doctors of the law. They received all 
the books of the Old Testament, and to these they added 
their traditions, or oral law, which they represented a,s of 
equal authority ,* yet many of the precepts contjiined in 
this oral law, were in direct opposition, not only to the 
spirit, but also to the letter of the decalogue, ''i'he Phari- 
sees affected an appearance of great satict'ty and devotion ; 
yet, being destitute of the spirit of true religion, Avere 
chargeable with the grossest hypocrisy. They looked for 
a Messiah who should be a mighty deliverer; w!io should 
rescue their nation from the domin'on of the Romans, and 
subject the whole world to the institutions of Moses. 

11. The manner of our Saviour's ap[)earance, was, in 
opposition to the expectation of the Jews, thq farthest 



27S ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

possible from worldly Ruthority and splendour. His re- 
puted father was a carpenter; he was laid in a manger at 
his birth ; he led a life of labour and suffering; endured 
the scoffs and reproaches of the world ; and at last suffered 
an isrnominious death upon the cross. He plainly declared 
that his kingdom was not of this world, and chose for his 
disciples, men fr )m the humblest walks of life. These 
were styled apnslles. and were commissioned to propagate 
the new religion, They were endued with the power of 
working n^iracles, and were furnished with the gift of 
tongue*,, by which they were euabied to preach the gospel 
to ;>!i nations in their respective lan;i:uages. 

12. The first missionaries of the faith proceeded, in 
good earnest, in the great work of christianizing the 
workl. Their success varied according to circumstances; 
but in general f^ey met with great opposition, and were 
frequently exposed to the severest persecution. The 
Jews having rejected and crucified our Saviour, were little 
inclined to listen to the instruct ons of his disciples, or 
receive his religion ; but among the Gentiles, the apostles 
met with wonderful success. 

13. The rapidity with which Christianity was propa- 
gated among the Gen.iles, will appear extraordinary, when 
we consider that the founder of it belonged to a hated 
nation, and had suffered a public and ignominious death ; 
that the apostles and evangelists were poor men, destitute 
of power and influence, and, except in the case o^ St. Paul, 
had no pretensions to learning; that the religion which 
they preached, held out no promise of temporal good, no 
worldly pleasures, riches, honour, or power; but on the 
contrary, often exposed its professors to the loss of all of 
them ; and that it had to contend, not only with the false 
religions and popular superstitions of the age, but also 
with the prejudices, passions, and vices of the world. 

14. This rapid success, under such circumstances, can 
be accounted for only upon the supposition that the apos- 
tles were endowed with miraculous gifts. They healed 
the sick ; they raised the dead to life ; and they preached 
to every nation that they visited, in its own language, the 
glad tidings of salvation, supporting and comforting their 
converts amidst the severest sufferings to which they were 
exposed. 

15. The evidences of their commission were muitiplied 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 273 

on every side ; and the temples of idolatry began speedily 
to be forsaken. Churches were soon established in almost 
every part of the Roman empire ; in the provinces .of 
Asia Minor and in Ethiopia ; at Cor'inth, at Phiiip'pi, at 
Thessaloni'ca, and in tiie capital city of Rome. In a short 
time, nations and cities more remote heard of the gospel. 
T!ie Gauls received the knowledge of Christianity from 
the immediate successors of the apostles ; and during the 
second century, the Germans, the Spaniards, and probably 
the Britons, were added to the multitudes in other parts, 
who made open profession of the ChrisUan faith. 

16. The Christians were subjected, by the Roman gov- 
ernment, to the severest persecution. Neither age nor 
sex was spared. Most of the apostles, and many of their 
immediate successors, obtained the crown of martyrdom. 
Ten persecutions are usually enumerated as having taken 
place under the emperors ; but this number is not very 
accurate ; for there were not so man}"^ that were general 
throughout the empire, but still more, if all that raged in 
particular provinces are included. The first general per- 
secution took place under the emperor JVero, who having 
set fire to the city of Rome, and reduced a great part of 
it to ashes, charged the guilt of this transaction upon the 
Christians, and inflicted upon them the severest sufferings.' 
In this persecution, St. Paul suffered martyrdom. 

17. Even the emperor Trajan., who is described as a 
mild and excellent sovereign, is to be numbered among 
the cruel persecutors of the professors of the new religion. 
During his reign, the younger Pliny was goversor of 
Bithynia ; and in a letter to the emperor, he thus states 
what had been his practice with regard to the disciples 
of Christ. '• This has been my method," says he, '• with 
regard to those who were brought hefore me as Christians : 
I asked them if they were Christians, and if they pleaded 
guilty, I intt-rrogated them twice afresh, with a menace 
of capital punishment. In case of obstinate perseverance, 
I ordered them to be exrjcuted. For of this I had no 
doubt, whatever was the nature of their religion, that a 
sullen and inflexible obstinacy called for the vengeance 
of the magistrate." Such, under the reign of the mild 
Trajan., was the extraordinary proceeding- of the phil- 
osophic Pliny., a man whose character for benevolence 
and justice, is one of the most unexceptionable that pagaij 
antiquity can furnish ! 



274 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

18. The testimony given by the same distinguished 
person, in his letter to the emperor, to the simplicity 
and purity of the Christian manners, is worthy of notice. 
"This," says Pliny, ''is their account of the religion 
which they professed, whether it deserves the name of a 
crime or an error, namely, that on a stated day they were 
accustomed to assemble before sunrise, and to repeat 
among themselves a hymn to Christ as a God and to bind 
themselves by an oath not to commit any wickedness, 
but on the contrary, to abstain from theft, robberies, and 
adulteries ; not to violate their promise, or deny a pledge : 
after which it is their custom to separate, and then meet 
again, sitting down to a harmless meal, of which all are 
invited to partake." 

19. The followers of Christ were doomed to undergo 
almost every variety of suffering. They were crucified ; 
they were impaled ; they were thrown to wild beasts ; 
they were publicly whipped till their bones and sinews 
appeared ; they had their flesh torn off with pincers ; they 
were consumed by a slow fire ; and they suffered death ia 
various other modes equally appalling and dreadful. The 
genius of man was exhausted in the invention of tortures ; 
and to a hasty observer, it might seem that the time was 
approaching, when Christianity, subdued and worn out 
with sufferings, would disappear from among men. 

20. This conclusion, however, would be the reverse of 
the truth. The Christians multiplied in a most extraor- 
dinary manner. Persecution not only united them more 
closely together, but it inflamed their zeal, and quickened 
their activity. The constancy with which they endured 
the most cruel sufferings, produced an impression in favour 
of the religion by which they were supported and ani- 
mated. Their opinions became general; a great majority 
of the people embraced and avowed them ; till at length, 
in the year 325, during the reign of Constaniine ; the re- 
ligi. n of Jesus became the religion of the Roman empire. 

21. From that time, Christianity was not only tolerated, 
but protected and cherished. The number of edifices con- 
secrated to the worship of God, was increased; and the 
emperor himself was not ashamed to be seen engaged ia 

- the exercises of religioq. 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 275 

SECTION II. 

From A. D. 325 to Ibo. 

1. Christianity being now supported by the Roman gov- 
ernment, whose influence was jfelt throughout almost all 
the civilized world, experienced a degree of worldij' pros- 
perity before unknown ; but the spirit of the religioa 
immediately declined. The clergy became infected with 
secular ambition, and were no longer distinguished for 
that puriiy and disinterestedness, which characterized the 
apostles and their immediate successors. Christianity be- 
came corrupted, also, by a mixture both of the philosoplij 
and the superstitions of paganism ; and the church was di- 
vided into a variety of sects 

2. Some heresies, as those of Gnostics and Cerinthijns^ 
date their origin as early as the apostolic age. A variety 
of others appeared in subsequent periods : hut the most 
memorable division of the church, in its early ages, was 
that which related to Arianism. 

3. Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria, was contemporary 
with Constantine, and had for his principal antagonist, 
Athana'sius. The controversy to which his opinions gave 
rise, attracted the notice of the emperor, who, in order 
to determine the catholic doctrine on the subject in dis- 
pute, assembled the famous Council of Nice, in 325. It 
was composed, according to some accounts, of no less than 
2,000 ecclesiastics, of whom 318 were bishops. The 
opinions of Arius were condemned, and the JVicene creed 
was published as the orthodox faith. 

4. Arianism, however, was not suppressed, but continued 
to have many patrons and supporters ; and the controversy 
long divided and afflicted the church. Constantius, the 
son and successor of Constantine, and several of the subse- 
quent emperors, favoured the Arians ; and the opinions of 
the Christian world too often fluctuated in compliance 
with the sentiments of its masters. Each party, in turn, 
laboured to establish its victory, by unjustifiable proceed- 
ings against the other. 

5. Many hurtful follies were introduced, through erro- 
neous views of what constituted the Christian life. Instead 
of making it consist in personal purity, and in the practice 
of piety to God and benevolence to man, it was conceived 



276 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

to consist ill various austerities and absurd modes of morti- 
fication. The more rigid abstained from the most innocent 
gratifications. They rejected marriage, abstracted them- 
selves from the world, and passed their lives in solitude, 
penance, and prayer. 

6. Simon Stylites^ a famous anchoret of the 5th century, 
became the I'ounder of the Pillar Saints. He is said to 
have passed 37 years of his life on the top of a column, 
beginning with one of six cabits in height, and ending 
with one of 40, thus attracting the admiration of the mul- 
titude. 

7. The origin of monastic life, is placed in Egypt, ia 
the middle of the 3d century. In subsequent ages, con- 
verts, both monks and nuns, abounded throughout Christ- 
endom. Thes<^ institutions, in early times, contained many 
persons of austere virtue and piety ; but they became, gen- 
erally, far more noted for their vices, than their devotion. 

8. The order established in the primitive church, was 
exceedingly simple. ~..The care of each congregati(.n was 
intrusted to its pastor or bishop, together with a certain 
number of assistants. Out of this primeval simplicity, the 
papacy gradually arose. The bishop of Rome, the me- 
tropolis of the empire, easily obtained, not only a prece- 
dence over all his brethren of other cities, but some 
degree of jurisdiction over such of them as were stationed 
within his reach. 

9. His, authority gradually increased; and in order to 
strengthen it further, it was pretended that St. Peter was 
the founder of the see of Rome, and, therefore, that the 
bishops of the metropolis were the succissors of that 
apostle ; yet it is a disputed point, whether St. Peter ever 
visited the Roman capital. In the latter part of the 4th 
century, the bishop of Rome openly <-eclared himself 
head <:f the universal church; and from that time the 
appe 11a' ion of Po/'e has been appropriated to him. His 
claim, however, to the rank of universal bishop, was dis- 
puted in different parts, and p irticularly by the Patriarch 
of Constairiihople. 'i his circnmstvince led *o the Reparation 
of the Eastern or Greek chnr iu which, ;, >.er ? long con- 
troversy, took place about the iiii<.ki;e of tiid llii; century. 

,10 In 755i the pope was raided to the rank of a tem- 
por I : rincc by Pepin, king of f riince, who conferred on 
him the exarchate of Ravenna. Since that period, the 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 277 

pretended successor of the poor and humble fisherman, 
Peter, has united in his person the highest offices of king 
and priest. 

11. In a succeeding age he laid claim to infallibility, 
and in the plenitude of his power, dispensed pardons for 
sin, and disposed of crowns and governments at his plea- 
sure. It was the favourite maxim of Rome, that the pope 
was, by divine right, the supreme lord of the world, and 
the fountain all authority, ecclesiastical and civil. 

SECTION III. 

From A. D. 155 to 1511. 

1. This period may be justly denominated the period of 
darkness. Christianity seems to have become nearly ob- 
literated, and imposture, fanaticism, and superstition, are 
dignified with its name. The lights of learning and science 
are likewise almost extinguished : the human mind ap- 
pears debased, and bewildered in the universal darkness ; 
and nothing seems too irrational or absurd for the igno- 
rance and credulity of the times. 

2. Among the most prominent objects which arrest the 
attention during these dark ages, are the monastic institu- 
tions, or convents of monks and nuns, relics, pilgrimages, 
crusades, and canonizations ; the doctrines of indulgences, 
transubstantiation, and purgatory ; the bulls and interdicts 
of the popes, and the senseless wranglings of the schools. 

3. In the beginning of the 9th century, the passion for 
collecting relics of the saints reached an extraordinary 
height ; many persons, some of whom were in eminent 
stations, travelled into Judea for the purpose of obtain- 
ing them ; the bodies of the apostles and first martyrs 
are said to have been dug up, and great quantities of 
bones and other relics were brought into Italy, and sold 
at enormous prices. Numerous impositions were practised 
in this traffic; the purchasers seem not always to have 
been very nice or scrupulous in their inquiries ; and many 
a devotee wept over the spine of a dog or a jackall, sup- 
posing all the while he had before him the relic of an 
apostle. 

4 Monastic institutions kept pace with the passion for 
relics. The madness spread throughout Christendom ; 
and even kings and great lords, unmindful of their true 
24 



278 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

dignity, as well as their duty to society, sought, in these 
abodes, an asylum from the cares and temptations of the 
world. Monastic life had its origin, probably, in sincere, 
though mistaken piety. Its rules were originally strict, 
but they fell gradually into disuse. The monasteries daily 
increased in wealth, by donations from the rich, who were 
in the habit, just before their death, of bestowing their 
property on these institutions, imagining that by this 
means they should secure the forgiveness of their sins. 
They were magnificent and commodious, and appeared 
more like the palaces of princes, richly stored with 
luxuries, than as the retreats of penitence and mortifica- 
tion. 

5. The monasteries, however, performed an important 
service to literature, and for ages they were the abodes 
of what little learning remained in the Christian world. 
The monks were not so universally illiterate as the secular 
clergy, as they had more opportunities for study, and 
fewer for dissipation. But the most important service 
which the monasteries performed, was by being secure 
repositories of books. By their means some sparks of 
ancient learning survived the long winter: in them al- 
most all the manuscripts of remoter ages, which have 
reached us, were preserved. In this manner, to use the 
language of Hallam, " religion made a bridge, as it were, 
across the chaos, and has linked the two periods of ancient 
and modern civilization." 

6. Some account of the Crusades and of Chivalry, which 
form prominent features in the history and state of society 
during this period, and which were intimately connected 
with the religion or superstition of the times, has already 
been given, in a preceding part of this volume. In these 
ages, particularly in the 10th and 11th centuries, the pas- 
sion for pilgrimage was carried to an extravagant height. 
This passion, and that for relics, have doubtless a founda- 
tion in human nature ; but in these times of superstition, 
they werfe carried to a most ridiculous and pernicious 
excess. 

7. In the 10th century, an opinion, founded on a passage 
in the Revelation, prevailed throughout Christendom, that 
the end of the world and the day of judgment were approach- 
ing. In consequence of this impression, prodigious numbers 
abandoned their connexions, gave up all their possessions 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 279 

to the monasteries and churches, and repaired to the Holy 
Land, where they imagined that Jesus Christ was ahout 
to descend from heaven to judge the world. The church 
gained, at this period, a great increase of wealth ; almost 
every donation made to it, during this century, affords 
evidence of the prevalence of this opinion, the donor 
commonly assigning his reason in the following words ; " As 
the world is now drawing near its close.'" Such was the 
general panic, that an eclipse of the sun or moon occasioned 
the greatest terror and dismay ; cities were, in consequence, 
deserted by the miserable inhabitants, who fled for refuge 
to caverns and other places of concealment. 

8. During this period, many absurd doctrines were in- 
troduced into the church. About the beginning of the 
13th century, was established the doctrine of transuhstan- 
tiation, according to which the bread and wine used in the 
sacrament of the supper, are changed into the real flesh 
and blood of Jesus Christ. 

9. The origin of the doctrine of purgatory, or a state 
of temporary punishment after death, is placed at an 
earlier date. Prayers and masses were offered up for 
souls who had passed into this preparatory state ; all the 
saints in heaven were supplicated, in order to shorten or 
mitigate the punishment ; rich gifts were bestowed upon 
the church by the surviving friends of those for whom the 
benefit was sought ; and the dying transgressor readily 
parted with his possessions to secure it. 

10. The doctrines of absolution and indulgences, like that 
of purgatory, were fruitful sources of wealth to the clergy; 
as they were likewise of vice and a general corruption of 
manners among all classes, by establishing a claim to the 
happiness of heaven without the cultivation of personal, 
virtue. They were sold by the authority of the pope for 
money; and a person who had purchased a plenary in- 
dulgence, might transgress, with impunity, any command 
of the decalogue. 

11. The influence of the pope, in this period, was far 
greater than that of any other potentate in Christendom ; 
he claimed an authority over kings and kingdoms, and 
assumed the magnificent title of Master of the world. If 
a sovereign offended him, his whole kingdom was liable 
to be laid under an interdict, during which the churches 
were shut up, and the celebration of divine worship was 



280 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

suspended; no sacrament, except baptism and extreme 
unction, was administered ; and the dead were buried in 
the highways, without funeral rites. In this way the 
penally feil upon those who had neither partaken of the 
oifence, nor had power to prevent it. 

12. In the 11th century, during the pontificate of pope 
Gregory VII. [^Hildebrand], the domiKion of the church 
attained its zenith. This haughty pontiif assumed supreme 
authority, not only in spiritual, but in temporal affairs, 
and regarded the sovereigns of Europe as his vassals. He 
excommunicated and deposed Henry IV., emperor of Ger- 
many, compelled him to appear before him as a penitent 
sinner, and to submit to a most severe and humiliating . 
penance, by passing three days in the open air, during 
winter, with his feet and head bare, at the papal threshold, 
waiting for absolution. The celibacy of the clergy, which 
had been before attempted, Gregory rigidly enforced, 
with a view of separating them, as far as possible, from 
all other interests, and bringing them into a total depend- 
ance on the holy see. 

13. The secular clergy^ who bad the care of parishes, 
and whose business it was to instruct the people, were 
destitute of every qualification for their sacred office, 
having neither learning nor morals. They seldom preach- 
ed, for in some periods, not one in a hundred could either 
read or write. In the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, the 
sacred scriptures were little known. The New Testament 
was rarely to be found, and many bishops had never seen 
it during their lives. 

14. The public discourses of those who undertook to 
preach, treated scarcely at all of any topic of Christianity ; 
but were made up of legends, or absurd stories relating 
to the lives and exploits of the saints. By degrees, all 
public instruction was given up ; and it was generally 
held, that to repeat a few forms in rapid succession, to 
undertake pilgrimages, to observe the holidays, to pay 
tithes and perquisites to the clergy, constituted the sum 
of religious duty, and formed the principal excellences of 
the Christian character. 

15. In these dark and miserable times, learning was as 
much corrupted and obscured as religion. The universal 
ignorance was rendered unavoidable, among other causes, 
by the scarcity of books, which could be procured only at an 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 281 

immense price ; the cost of a sing-le volume being equal 
to that ot" a good house. Thej were, therefore, out of 
the reach of the common people, who had no learning, 
and no sense of its value. Contracts were made verbally, 
for want of persons capable of writing them. But it would 
be unsatisfactory to exhibit a few specimens of the igno- 
rance of these times, as it can be judged only by the ac- 
cumulated multitude. 

16. The little literature which existed, was chiefly occu- 
pied about the lives and miracles of the saints, and other 
subjects of no interest or utility. The questions which 
commanded the principal attention in the schools, were 
of the most trifling and preposterous character; and the 
discussions were specimens of elaborate folly. The most 
celebrated controversy among the schoolmen, was that 
between the Realists and JVominalists, which engaged the 
attention of the metaphysical champions of the times, 
" the subtle," " the irrefragable," '•' the seraphic," and 
"the angelic" doctors; and which was carried on by the 
use of the sword, as well as of the pen. 

SECTION IV. 

The Reformation^ beginning in 1517. 

1. The Reformation is the most Important event that 
has taken place in the religious world, since the first pro- 
mulgation of Christianity. Various circumstances prepared 
the way for the introduction of this great revolution. The 
Waldenses, in Piedmont, and the Albigenses^ in the south of 
France, had long borne testimony against the corruptions 
of the church of Rome. 

2. Various persons, in different parts of Europe, had 
formed more enlightened and scriptural views of religion, 
than were generally prevalent ; and by their instructions 
and writings, had produced a considerable influence. 
Among these, John Wickliffe, of England, who flourished 
in the 14th century, holds a distinguished rank. He at- 
tacked, with great boldness, and with powerful effect, the 
prevailing corruptions, translated the scriptui'es into Eng- 
lish, and left numerous followers, who were styled Wick- 
liffites or Lollaro's. 

3. In the beginning of the 15lh century, John Huss 
and Jerome of Pruiue^ imbibing sentiments similar to those 

24* 



282 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

of Wickliife, made a similar stand against the errors and 
corruptions of the times. Their followers, in Bohemia, 
were numerous ; and under their renowned leader, ZiscOf 
they took up arms in defence of their religion. 

4. The revival of learning had begun now to show it- 
self in different countries of Europe. The human mind 
was awaking from the long sleep of ages, and the in- 
vention of the art of printing was of signal service in 
creating and gratifying the desire of knowledge, and in 
giving diffusion to new doctrines. 

5. In the 1617, Tetzel, an agent of Pope Leo X.. began 
to publish indulgences in Germany, and offer them for 
sale. The pontiff a man of pleasure and ambition, had 
exhausted the papal treasury by his profuse muniticeuce, 
and 'ook this method to replenish it A complete remission 
of sins, whether past, present, or future, was promised to 
all who would pay the stipulated sum. The offence ex- 
cited by publishing this doctrine, was heightened by the 
shameless impudence of the manner in which it was pro- 
claimed by Tetzel and his associates, and by the gross 
immorality of their lives. 

6. The man who has the honour of making an effectual 
stand against this iniquitous traffic, was Martin Luther^ a 
professor of divinity in the university of Wittenberg, in 
Saxony. Luther was eminently fitted for the important 
part which he was called upon to act, by his extraordinarj 
and varied talents, his unconquerable zeal, and his un- 
daunted courage. He declaimed against indulgences with 
all the power of his eloquence, and exposed, with vehe- 
ment indignation, the vices of the monks, 

7. Leo and his agents, alarmed by the tidings of Luther's 
rapid success, proceeded against him wholly in the way of 
despotic authority. The reformer was summoned to ap- 
pear at Augsburg, before cardinal Cajetan, who, without 
deigning to attempt to convince him of his error, com- 
manded him to recant ; and propounded to him, for his 
belief, the following dogma : " That one drop of Christ's 
blood being sufficient to redeem the whole human race, 
the remaining quantity, which was shed in the garden 
and upon the cross, was left as a legacy to the church, to 
be a treasure, from whence indulgences can be drawn 
and administered by the Roman pontiff." 



ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 283 

8. Luther refused to retract his opinions, till he should 
be conv need that they were erroneous. At length, in 
1520, ti)e pope issued a bull, denouncing destruction 
against him, as an excommunicated heretic, unless he 
should, within 60 days, pub.icly recant his errors, and 
burn his own books. 

9. This famous bull, so fatal to the papal interests, had 
no other effect upon the mind of the reformer, than that 
of exciting him to keener and more systemaiic opposition. 
Amidst a vast assemblage of people, in the town of Wit- 
tenberg, he threw the papal bull, together with the 
volumes of the canon law, into the flames, renounced the 
authority of the pope, exhorted the princes of Europe to 
shake oflf the oppressive yoke which they had so long 
borne, and offered thanks to Almighty God that he was 
selected as the advocate of true religion, and a friend to 
the liberties of mankind. 

10. Nor was the voice of the reformer lifted up in vain. 
The new opinions found friends in almost every country 
in Europe. In Switzerland, Zuinglms attacked indulgen- 
ces with a courage by no means inferior to that of Luther 
himself. Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, and sev- 
eral other princes of Germany favoured the reformation. 

11. In a diet held at Worms, it was resolved that every 
secular prince should manage the ecclesiastical affairs of 
his dominions, as he himself should judge most proper, 
till the meeting of a general council. But at a subsequent 
diet this resolution was reversed ; and against its reversal, 
the elector of Saxony and other princes who favoured the 
reformation, entered their solemn protest. From this cir- 
cumstance, the name of Protestants had its origin ; a name 
since applied to all the sects that have withdrawn, upon 
any account, from the church of Rome. 

12. The sacred scriptures were translated by Luther 
into the German language, and read with astonishing 
avidity. The learned and mild Melancthon, who had as- 
sisted Luther in the translation, drew up the celebrated 
Confession of Faif^, which was presented in behalf of the 
Protestants at the AieX. oi Aupburg. in 1530. 

13. The Reformation soon extended to Sweden and 
Denmark, and was firmly established )n the city of Geneva 
and the Swiss cantons, by the celebrated Calvin. It found 
friends also in France, the Netherlands, Spain, Hungary, 



284 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

and Bohemia. To crown the whole, Henry VITI. of E!i^- 
land, having quarrelled with the pope on account of his 
divorce, renounced the papal authority, and bj means of 
tht prudent managem^'nt of Cranni'r, the reformed doc- 
trines were, at length, eflfectually estabiished in that king- 
dom. Scotland also was soon emancipated from the papal 
superstition and tyranny, by the unwearied labours of the 
intrepid and zealous Knox: 

14. The Reformers were singularly qualified for the 
important services which they performed. They were 
not, it is true, free from the faults and prejudices of the 
age in which they lived; yet they were men of great 
talents and great virtues ; and with the friends of religion, 
literature, and liberty, their names are deservedly as- 
sociated with sentiments of gratitude and veneration. 

15. The enemies of the Reformation were numerous 
and powerful. The greater part of the sovereigns of 
Europe, from considerations either of principle or policy, 
continued to be attached to the ancient system. 

16. Since this great schism in the religious world, the 
influence of the court of Rome in Christendom, has been 
greatly diminished. The Roman Catholic church, has 
also in most countries where it is established, become 
more enlightened than it was previous to the Reformation ; 
but inasmuch as it inculcates implicit faith in its own in- 
fallibHity, and discountenances the circulation of the Bible, 
and the free perusal of it by the laity, it is much less 
favourable to the dissemination of knowledge, more es- 
pecially religious knowledge, than is Protestantism^ which 
maintains the sufficiency of the scriptures, and the right 
of private judgment. It will, accordingly, be found that, 
in Protestant countries, the common people are much 
better informed than in Catholic countries. 

Some of the principal events which have taken place 
in the religious world since the Reformation, as welt as 
before that event, will be found recorded in the Charts^ 
■which accompany this work. 



CHRONOLOGY. 285 



CHRONOLOGY. 

Views of Tabular Chronology^ both ancient and modern-, 
are given in the Charts which accompany this work. But 
the Chart of Ancient Chronology extends back only eight 
centuries before the Christian era. The number of events 
recorded prior to that period, is compaiatively small, 
and with regard to the accuracy of most of them, there 
is much uncertainty. The systems of Chronology here prin- 
cipally followed, are those of Playfair and of the New 
Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. 

In the following table the most important events prior 
to the year 800 before the Christian era, and the most 
distinguished eras since that period, are given, together 
with a system of Artificial Memory, to facilitate the recol- 
lecting of dates. This system is derived chiefly from Dr. 
Grey's Memoria Technica. 

Explanation. In order to facilitate remembering dates, 
a word is formed of the name recorded or of the first sylla- 
bles of it, together with one or more syllables added to it, 
and made up of numeral letters. For this purpose, a vowel 
and a consonant is assigned to each digit, and a or 6 denote 
1 ; e or £^ 2 ; i or t 3; o orf 4 ; and so on in the following' 
series : 



a 


e 


% 





u 


au 


01 


00 


ou 


ax 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 





b 


d 


t 


/ 


V 


s 


P 


k 


n 


z 



These letters may easily be remembered by consider- 
ing that the first five vowels represent 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; that 
the diphthong ctw, which is composed of a 1 and u 5, de- 
notes 6 ; that oi, for the same reason, denotes 7, oo 8, and 
ou 9. The diphthong ai is put for the cypher 0, but without 
any similar reason. 

The first consonant b denotes t ; c/, the first letter of 
duo^i the Latin for iwo, denotes 2 ; I, the initial of the 
word three^ is put for 3 ; /, for the same reason, for 4 ; v, 
(V, being the Roman numeral for five)., denotes 5 ; s, the 
initial of six., is put for 6 ; p, from se/jtem, the Latin for 
seven, denotes 7 ; A;, from the Greek oA;to, eight., is put for 
8 ; «, the initial of the word wrae, denotes 9 j and z, th^ 
final letter, is put for 0. 



286 CHRONOLOGY. 

Having perfectly learned the foregoing series, the stu- 
dent may proceed to exercise himself in the formation 
and resolution of dates, in the following manner : 

10 189 342 390 659 1492 1776 1826 
az boon tod touz sun afne apois akdau 

The system may be extended at pleasure ; and by the 
formation of words in the manner described, it will be 
easy to fix in the mind the time of the death of illustrious 
men, the commencement of the reigns of kings, and other 
events, of which it is desirable to remember the date. It 
will be easy to remember whether the event took place 
before or after Christ.— Besides the series of letters already 
explained, g may denote a hundred, and th a thousand. 



4004 

2348 

2247 

2221 

2059 

2188 

1921 

1856 

1764 

1556 

1529 

1493 

1491 

1452 

1263 

1252 

1233 

1184 

1104 

1079 

1012 

884 

776 

753 

601 

536 

509 

490 

400 

324 

312 

216 

146 

31 



TABLE. 

Creation of the world - ... - Cxe-faiza. 

Deluge ....... Del-«iofc. 

Babel built ; mankind dispersed ... Bab-erfop. 

Babylon founded by Nimrod ... 'Bz.hy-deeb. 

The kingdom of v4s*2/Ha begins ... Assyx-ezun. 

The kingdom of Egypt commences - - Egypt-ebook. 

Calling of Abraham ..... Ahrah-aneb, 

The kingdom of Argos begins ... Avg-akus. 

Deluge of Ogyges in Attica - . - . Ogy-boiso. 

Athens founded by Cecrops ... Ath-avus. 

Deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly ... Deucal-aueM. 
Cadmus brings letters into Greece & builds Thebes Cadmus-6o»<. 

Israelites brought out of Egypt by Moses - Israel-6oria. 

Pentateuch written Pentateuch-a/M^. 



Argonautic Expedition 

Tyre built 

Carthage built by a colony of Tyrians 
Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks 
The Heraclidm return into Greece 
Saul king of Israel .... 

The Tem^Ze of Solomon founded 
Lycurgus reforms the laws of Lacedaemon 
The first Olympiad begins . - - 
Rome founded by Romulus ... 
End of the .^ssT/rian empire 
Cyrus founds the Persian empire 
Tarquin expelled from Rome 
Battle of JlfaraiAon . . . - 

Socrates put to death .... 
Alexander the Great dies at Babylon 
The era of the .SeZeuidcE . . , 

Battle of Cannm 

Greece reduced to a Roman province 



Argonaut-6e*<. 

Tyx-adud. 

Carthag-a(ii<. 

Troy-6afco. 

Heraclid-afioi/". 

Saul-a«oi«. 

Templ-azocZ. 

Lycurg-oo/co. 

Olym-pois. 

Kom-put 

Assyria-*ai6. 

Cyru-Dis. 

Tarquin-tJotw. 

JVl arath-o?iz. 

Socrat-o«oi. 

Alexand-ic/o. 

Seleucid-i6«. 

Cannae.da*. 

Greece-6ofi. 



Battle of ./Sciiwrn.; end of Roman commonwealth Actiura-te, 



CHRONOLOGY. 



287 



Birth of Christ; 4 years before ne vu gar era. 

70 Jerusalem taken and destroyed ... Jerusal-otV. 

98 Trajan, emperor of Rome - - . . Trajan-woM. 

306 Consteniiwe, emperor of Rome ... ConstMntin-tat*. 

410 Alaric sacks and burns Rome ... Alaric^Jx^. 

447 Attila ravages Europe Attila^/bp. 

476 End of the Western iJoman. empire - - Rom^ot*. 

622 Era of the Hegyra, or flight of Mahomet - Hegyra-serf. 

762 Sag-<ia<i, the seat of the caliphs, built - - Bagd-owe. 

800 Cftar/emag-ne, emperor of the West - - Charlemag-oo«OT. 

827 The kingdom of England begins under Egbert England-fcep. 

872 Alfred the Great, king of England - - Alfred-itotd. 

1066 fFi'ZZiam the Conqueror, king of England - Will-iawaM. 

1096 First Crusade to the Holjr Land - - Crusad-azoiM. 

1227 Geng-Aw-Man's conquests in Asia ... Genghis-6e<Zoz. 

1258 End of the CaZip/iofe or Saracen empire - Caliphat-arfufc. 

1340 G^^npoM(fe»- in\ anted at Cologne, by Schwartz Gunpowder-afojr. 

1370 Wickliffe propagates his doctrines in England Wickliff-a<oi^. 

1404 Timur Bek or Tamerlane the great conqueror Timur-6o«o. 

1440 The art of Printing invented ... Fiiat-qfbz. 
1453 Eastern Empire evds; Twrfc^takeConstantiople Turks-afwt 

1492 America discovered by Columbus - - America-fiowe. 

1517 The Reformation in Germany begun by Luther Reform-auap. 

1556 Charles V. resigns the crown ... Charles-aviw. 

1603 Union of Englaad and Scotland, under Jawie* L Jam-asait. 

1620 Plymouth, Mass. settled by the Puritans - Plymouth-iawez. 

1648 Peace of Westphalia Westphal-cwofc. 

1688 Revolution in Britain ..... Revolut-ft.soofc. 

1725 PeZer the Great of Russia dies ... Petex-boidu, 

1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle .... Aix-la-Chapell.qpoA;. 

1776 /nrfe/>endence of the United States declared - Independen-apoi*. 

1788 ConsfiZwiiow of the United States adopted - Constitut-a/)oo&. 

1789 French Revolution Revolut-a^oow. 

1804 Bonaparte crowned emperor of France - Bonapart-6oo«», 

1815 Battle of Waterloo - - - , - - - Waterl-o(fe6M. 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

\ Description and Illustration of the Chart 0/ History : — 
Chart JVo. I. 

1. This Chart affords means of facilitating the study of 
History, similar to what are afforded by maps in the study 
of Geography. It supposes time to be flowing, in a stream, 
from the left hand to the right ; and represents, at one 
Tiew, the principal states and empires which have existed 
in the world, together with their origin, revolutions, de- 
cline, and fall. 

2. Those who may make use of this Chart, are sup- 
posed to be conversant with the common principles of 
o-eography, and to understand the relative situation and 
importance of the different countries which are represent- 
ed. It will be readily seen, that the spaces which repre- 
sent the several countries on the Chart, do not give any 
idea of the extent of those countries, but of the revolutions 
which they have undergone, and in some degree, of their 
comparative importance in history. Those parts of the 
world which are almost unknown in history (as for ex- 
ample, all Africa, except Egypt and the Barbary states), 
are not represented at all on the Chart. 

3. In the arrangement of the countries, the geographi- 
cal order is generally followed. It unavoidably happens, 
that owing to conquests and other acquisitions, the several 
parts of an empire or state, cannot always be placed in a 
contiguous position. To remedy this inconvenience, re- 
course has been had to colouring the different parts of the 
same empire with the same colour, by means of which, 
the eye can embrace, at one view, the various territories, 
of which it v/as, at any given period, composed. The 
colours fit for this purpose are so few, that a repetition of 
some of them has been necessary ; but they are such as 
will not be likely to mislead the student. 

4. The whole scale comprises a period of 2,700 years ; 
namely, from the year B. C. 800, to the end of the 19th 
century. This interval is divided into 27 equal parts, by 
perpendicular lines, extending trom the top to the bottom, 
each space between the lines denoting the period of 100 
years. The several countries, whose history is delineated. 



mSTOmCAL ATLAS. 289 

^fe represented in spaces formed by the horizontal lines. 
By carrying the eye horizontally along the Chart, the 
principal revolutions which a stale has undergone, will 
be seen. 

5. To ascertain the date of any event in the history of 
a country represented on the Chart, add the figures at 
the line denoting the event or rovriution to the next cen- 
tury, ii' after Christ, on the left hand; and it before Christ, 
on the riijht hand ; and the sum will give the date before 
or after t e Christian era, as the case may be. Thus it 
appears by the Chart, that the Babylonian empire ended, 
and the t'ersian began, B. C. 536 ; that Macedonia was re- 
duced to subjection to the Romans B.C. 168, and Greece 
B. C 146 : also that the kingdom of the Lombards was 
incorporated with that of the Franks A. D. 774 ; that the 
kingdom of Eii;2,land., under the Saxons, commenced in 
827; that Irelnndvi-AS added to it in 1 172; Scotland., in ]60ri; 
that the English held possessions in France from the year 
1€66 to 1558. The slant lines denote, generally, the 
gradual conquest of a country ; as for example, the con- 
quest of Britain by the Romans, was commenced A. D. 43, 
but not completed till 84. 

6. By inspecting the Chart, and carrying the eye verti- 
cally, from the tep to the bottom, one may see what states 
and empires were flourishing at any given era. At the 
period of 600 years B. C, it will be seen that the Persian 
empire was much the most considerable then existing ; 
that it had swallowed up the Babylonian empire, and va- 
rious other states ; that the Grecian states existed separate 
and independent; that the republic of Rome was of very 
small extent; that the nations of the middle and north of 
Europe were unconquered and independent ; that E^ypt 
was subject to Persia ; and that the Carthaginians were 
independent. 

7. At the period of 100 A. D., it will be seen that the 
Roman empire composed almost all the then known world; 
that the Britons had been recently subdued, but that the 
Irish., Scots, and the northern nations of Europe, and also 
the Panhians, Arabs, Hindoos., and Chinese, (nations then 
little known) were not conquered. 

8. At the period of 800 A. D., it will be seen that the 
three principal empires were those of the Franks, the 
Saracens, and the Greeks ; that the Western empire of the 

25 



290 HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

Romans had been, for upwards of three centuries, extinct ; 
and that the kingdom of the Lombards had been recently 
terminated ; that England was under the government of 
the Saxon Heptarchy ; that Wales^ Scotland, and Ireland, 
were independent, and the northern kingdoms not yet 
formed ; that the temporal dominion of the Pope had com- 
menced ; that the Saracens were in possession of the great- . 
er part of Spain, the whole of Persia, a great part of the 
Eastern or Greek empire ; all Egypt, and Barbary. 

9. At the period of 1300 A. D., it appears that the 
three kingdoms of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, wer6 
separate and independent ; that a large part of the country 
which now forms the Russian empire, was in the possession 
of the Moguls ; that Poland was an independent kingdom, 
but that Lithuania was separate ; that England was in 
possession of Wales and Ireland, but not of Scotland ; that 
Bohemia and Hungary were independent ; that a consider- 
able portion of France belonged to England; that Lor- 
raine, Alsace, and Burgundy were independent of France ; 
that Italy and Spain comprised various states, the lat- 
ter being partly in the possession of the Moors; that 
Portugal had become an independent kingdom ; that the 
Eastern empire was still in existence ; that the Moguls 
were in possession of Persia, a part of the Eastern or 
Greek empire (modern Turkey), and China, as well as a 
part of Russia ; that the kingdom of Jerusalem had fallen 
into the possession of the Mamelukes ; and that the Mame- 
lukes also possessed Egypt. 

10. At the period of 1800, it appears that Denmark was 
in posssession of Norway, which was soon after annexed to 
Sweden ; that the kingdom of Fo/a/irfhad been dismembered 
between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, all which had now 
become important sovereignties ; that Holland, the Nether- 
lands, and a great part of Italy had been recently annexed 
to France, but were soon after again separated from it ; 
that Naples had become an independent kingdom; that the 
Turks were la possession of a great part of the countries 
most celebrated in .ancient history ; that the Wahabees had 
got possession of a great part of Arabia, and the English 
of Hindonstfin ; that the English possessed Canada ; that 
the United States had become independent of England ; 
that the Spanish provinces in America belonged still to 
Spain, and Brazil to Portugal, but that soon afterwards 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 291 

they all became independent. — The dates on the right 
hand denote the time when each of these provinces became 
independent ; those on the left, the time of the conquest or 
settlement of each. 

11. By beginning on the left hand of the Chart, and 
proceeding slowly towards the right, one may see the 
succession of empires and kingdoms, their rise, progress, 
and fall ; of what states they were composed, and what 
stales rose from their ruins. 

12. The four great empires of antiquity were the 
Assyrian or Babylonian^ the Persian^ the Macedonian^ and 
the Roman. 1 he Babylonian empire., as is seen by the 
Chart, terminated B. C. 536, when it was swallowed up 
by the Persian empire, which continued till B. C 330, 
when it was conquered by Alexander the Great, and added 
to the Macedonian empire. The kingdom of Macedon or 
Macedonia dates from about B. C. 800 ; but its chief splen- 
dour was during the reigns of Philip and Alexander. In 
its extensive form, it was of short duration, being finally 
dismembered B. C. 301. The kingdom o( Macedonia was 
at that time reduced to about its former limits, and B. C, 
168, it became a Roman province. 

13. Rome dates from B. C. 753. During upwards of 
four centuries from its foundation, it was of very limited 
extent; but before it had existed five centuries, it had 
conquered all Italy. Greece and Carthage were conquered 
B. C. 146 ; Syria and Jadea, B. C. 65 ; the Gauls, B. C. 51 ; 
Egypt, B. C. 30 ; the Britons, from A. D. 43 to 84. The 
Homan empire, from about half a century before Christ 
to the latter part of the 5th century after Christ, com- 
prised most of the then known world. In 476, the West- 
ern empire was terminated by the Heruli. The Eastern 
empire subsisted till 1453, when it was supplanted by the 
Turks. 

14. The Heruli were supplanted by the Ostrogoths ; the 
latter by the Greeks ; and these by the Lombards, who 
retained possession of Italy till 774, when they were con- 
quered by the Franks, whose empire, during several 
centuries, was the most formidable in Europe. In 843, it 
was divided into three monarchies, France, Germany, and 
Italy. 

15. The empire of the Saracens commenced before the 
middle of the 7th century, continued through that, the 



2Qt: HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

8th, and the 9th centuries flourishing and powerful, bat 
was at length broken into various parts: in 1258, the 
Caliphate oj Bagdad terminated. 

16. The empire of the Moguls or Mongvis, a race of 
Tartars, was widely extended in the early part of the 13tb 
century, under the mighty conqueror Jengh's-Khan. who 
died, after a reign of 22 years, in 1*^28, having divided 
his empire among his four sons. In the latter part of the 
14th century, Timvr £ek, or Tamerlane, a Tartar, by sense 
supposed to he a descendant of Jenghis-Khan, ran a similarj 
but still more extended, career of conquest. He made Sa- 
marcaiid the seat of his empire, and in addition to Tartary, 
he conquered Persia, a great part of India, and Syria ; in^ 
vaded China and other countries ; and died in 1405t 

Questions on the Chart of History. 

1. What -were the four great empires of antiquity ? 

2. Which was the most extensive ? 

3. When was Assyr'a incorporated with the Babylonian 
empire ? 4. When did the Babylonian empire end ? 

6. What empire rose in its stead ? 

6. What countries did the Persian empiVe comprehend ? 

7. When did the Persian empire terminate ? 

8. How long before Christ was the Macedonian empire 
most flourishing? 

9. In what period did the Ptolemies govern Egypt:, and 
the Seleucidcs, Syria ? 

10. When did the Maccabees govern Judea ? 

1 1 . When was Rome founded ? 

12. What were some of the nations first conquered by 
Rome ? 

13. When was Macedonia conquered? 14. Greece, OT 
the Achfsan League? 15. Syria? 

16. Which were first conquered by the Romans, the 
Gauls or the Britons? 

17. How many centuries were"^tbe Britons subject to 
the Romans? 

18. When did the Heruli get possession of Italy ? 

19. In what centuries were the Lombards possessed of 
Italy ? 

20. In what centuries was the empire of the Franks 
most extensive ? 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 293 

21. What three kingdoms were formed from the empire 
of the Franks ? 

22. In what countries were the Visigoths in possession of 
Spam and Portugal ? 

23. In what centuries was the Saracen empire most 
flourishing ? 24. What modern countries did it comprise ? 

25. In what century did the Caliphate of Bagdad termi- 
nate ? 

26. When did the Eastern or Greek empire terminate ? 

27. In what centuries did the Fatemites govern Egypt ? 

28. The Mamelukes ? 

29. In what centuries was the empire of the Moguls 
most extensive ? 

30. In what centuries did the Kings of Jerusalem flourish ? 

31. In what century did the French emperors possess the 
Eastern empire ? 

32. What nations inhabited Sweden, JVorxvay, and Den<- 
mark before the Christian era ? 

33. With what country was JVorway united from the 15th 
to the 19th century ? 

34. What nations were anciently inhabitants of Russia? 

35. Who inhabited Great Britain before Christ ? 

36. When did the Saxon Heptarchy flourish ? 

37. Which was first annexed to England, Wales or Ire- 
land ? 

38. In what century did Holland become independent ? 

39. In what centuries did the English hold possessions 
in France ? 

40. What countries were annexed to France about the 
end of the 18th century? 

41. When were they again separated from France? 

42. When did JVaples become an independent kingdom ? 

43. In what century did the empire of the Turks com- 
mence ? 

44. When did the English begin to have possessions in 
India ? 

45. When did the Turks obtain possession oi' Egypt? 

46. Who possessed Egypt immediately before the Turks ? 

47. Who conquered Egypt more than live centuries B C. ? 

48. Who have successively possessed Egypt since that 
period ? 

49. About the middle of what century did the Mantchew 
Tartars become possessed of China ? 

25* 



294 HISTORICAL ATLAS, 

50. In what centuries were the Moguls possessed of 
China ? 

51. In what century did the Spaniards establish theii 
power in America ? 

52. In what century did the English form settlements 
in America? 

53. How many centuries did Spain possess Mexico ? 

54. By whom was Canada settled ? 55. Brazil ? 

56. What country of Spanish America first became in- 
dependent ? 

57. What were the principal countries and states in the 
world 500 years B C. ? 

58. What was the principal empire at the time of the 
birth of Christ, and for several centuries afterward? 

59. What were the principal empires at the period of 
800 ? 60. What at the period of 1300 ? 61. At 1800? 

Chart of Ancient Chronology. — JVo^H. 

1. The first or left hand column contains the seven 
kings of Rome ; the most distinguished public men during 
the continuance of the republic^, with the offices which 
they sustained ; the emperors of Rome, and after the 
division of the empire, the emperors of the Western 
and the Eastern empires ; the kings of lialy^ while that 
country was in possession of the Heruli^ Ostrogoths^ and 
Lombards, ending with Desiderius, who was conquered by 
Charlemagne. — The names of a few of the emperors 
(after the time of Con'nodus), whose reigns were short 
and unimportant, are omitted. 

2. The second column contains other distinguished con- 
temporary sovereigns. The third column contains the most 
remarkable eras and revolutions. In the fourth column, it 
will ^e seen that the Romans were concerned in all the 
battles and military operations enumerated in the first three 
centuries B. C. ; and the Greeks in all those enumerated 
in the 4th and 5th B. C, except the battle of the Allia.. 

QVESTIONS. 

1, Who was the first, and who the last of the seven kings 
«f Rome ? 

2. In what three centuries B. C. did they reign? 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 295 

3. How many centuries did the Roman commonwealth 
Qontinue ? 4. Who were the first two consuls ? 

5. Who formed the first triunivirafe ? 

6. Who was the first, and who the last of the twelvt 
Caisars ? 

7. Near the end of what century did Trajan's reigo 
begin ? 

8. When did Const mtine the Great be<?in to reign? 

9. When was the empire divided into West and East? 

10. Who was the last emperor of the West? 

11. Who was 'he firs! Idn.r ofltly? 

12. Who was the first of the Os^msety? 

o 

13. Who was the fir.-t of th'^ Lnnb.irds? 

14. In what century was Justinian I. emperor of the 
East ? 

15. What king of Rome was contemporary with Heze- 
kiahi king of Judah ? 

16. What king of Rome was contemporary with Cyrus 
the Great ? 

17. Which preceded the other, Alexander or Pyrrhus? 

18. How long did Antiochus the Great begin to reign 
before Mithridates the Great? 

19. In whit century did Zenobia flourish? 

20. In what century did Genseri.c and Attila reign? 

21. Who was the first Caliph? 

22. When did he begin to reign? 

23. In what century did Charlemagne and Haroun al 
Raschid begin to reign ? 

24. What eras and events are enumerated in the 8th 
century B.C.? 25. In the 7th? 26. In the 6lh? 27. In 
the 5th? &c. 

28. In what two centuries did the battles famous in 
Grecian History take place ? 

29. In what three centuries did the battles mcst fiimous 
in Roman History take place ? 

30. What famous battles took place in the 5th century 
B.C.? 31. What in the 4th? 32. The 3d? 33. The 
2nd? 34. The 1st? 

35. Who were victorious, and who were defeated, at 
the battle of Marathon "^ 

36. Wheat ThermopylcB? 37. Salamis? &c. 

- 38. By whom was Rome taken in the 5(h century A. I). ? 
39. In what century did the Saracens begin their con 
quests ? 



296 HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

40. In what century B. C. did the captivity of the Ten 
Tribes take place? 

41. In what century B.C. were the Jews carried captive ? 
42 When was the second Temple dedicated ? 

43. When does the history of the Old Testament end? 

44. When does the histor}/ of the Apocrypha end ? 

45. What important events relating to Christianity took 
place in the 1st century? 46. What in the 2d ? 47. The 
3d? 48. The 4th? 49. The 5th? 50. The 6th? 

51. The 7th? 52. The 8th? 

53. How m-Axxj persecutions are enumerated? 

Chart of Modern Chronology. — No. III. 

1. The first or left hand column contains a list of the 
most eminent sovereigns in modern history, with the com- 
mencement of the reign of each, and their respective 
monarchies. In the 2d column are enumerated the most 
remarkable eras and revolutions. 

2. In the 3d column are found the most important bat- 
tles in modern history, together with the successful and 
unsuccessful commanders ; many of whom were the liiost 
celebrated generals of the times. The abbreviations denote 
the country or kingdom to which the several commanders 
belonged : as Fr. France ; En. England.^ &c. — They will 
be readily understood by observing of what names, stand- 
ing on the right hand of the sovereigns, in the first column, 
the abhreviatuns are initials. 

3. The 4th column contains an enumeration of the most 
important events which have taken place in Ecclesiasti- 
cal History, or which relate to the state and progress of 
reljgion. 

4. The 5th column exhibits an interesting view of the 
progress of .society and improvement, for a succession of 
centuries. Most persons, who have attended but little to 
inquiries of this sort, will probably be struck at observing 
how many matters, arts, and improvemenls, important to 
human subsistence, comfort, and intellectual advancement, 
are of modern invention or introduction. 

5 The names of the authors of the difierent inventions 
and improvements, are given, as far as they have been 
ascertained. In some instances, the same invention is as- 
cribed to several persons ; since it is not ascertained, in all 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 29T 

those instances, who was the original inventor. One of the 
persons named may have been the author of the original 
invention, npon which the others may have made im- 
provements. Antiquaries have not determined, with cer- 
tainty, to whom the world is indebted for that most im- 
portant invention, the art of printing. 

6. The honour is claimed by three cities, Haerlem, 
M'ntz, and Strasbiirg. But the most probable account 
appears to be, that the art was invented and iirst practised, 
wiih the use of wooden types, at Haerlem, before 1436, by 
L'wentins Coster ; that Gutlemberg and Geinsjleisch., two 
brothers, patronized by John Faust, at Mentz^ made a very- 
important improvement, about 1444, by the invention of 
ct )n,etal types ; and that the art was perfected by Peler 
S hoeffer of Mentz, about 145B, by the invention of 
cast mrtal types. It is common to place the time of the 
invention at 1440; though it was commenced earlier, but 
not completed till afterwards. 

Questions. 

\\ Who were distinguished sovereigns of the 9th cen- 
tury ? 2. Of the 10th? &,c. 

3. Near the end of what century was the first Crusade.^ 

4. In the middle of what century was the fifth Crusade? 

5. In what century was the Feudal System in its zenith? 

6. In what century w 'S Chivalry in its zenith? 

7. In what century was Europe ravaged by a great 
pligue ? 

8. What remarkable events took place in the 15th 
century ? 

9. What remarkable events happened in the 16th cen- 
tury? 10 The 17th? &c. 

11. What b'ttffis took place in the 13th century? 

12 The 14th? 13. The 15th? 14. The 16th.? 
. 15. The 12th? 16. The 18th? 17. The 19th? 

18. Who was vifctorious, and who defeated, in the battle 
of Falkirk.^ 19. Who at Bannnckburn ? 20. At Cressy ? 

21. At Poictiers? 22. At Otterburn? 

23. At Agincourt ? 24. At Towton ? 25. At Bosworth ? - 

26. At Flodden? 27. \tPavia? 28. At Ivry ? 

29. AtNaseby? 30. At Blenheim ? 31. At Fultava? 

32. At Quebec 33. At Marengo ? 34. At Trafalgar? 



298 HISTORICAL 4TLAS'. 

35. At Austerlitz ? 36. At Borodino? 37. At Leipsic ? 

38. At Waterloo ? 

39. In what century did a great passion for relics pre- 
vail ? 

40. In what century was there a general expectation of 
the approach of the day of jutlgment ? 

41. What circumstances respecting religion are enu- 
merated in the 11th century? 42 1 he 12th? 

43. The 13th? 44. The 14th? 45. The 15th? 
46. The 16th? 47. The 17th? 48. The 13th? 

49. The 19th? 

50. What are some of the arts and improvements which 
originated in the 9th century? 51. The 10th? 

52. The nth? 53. The 121h? 54. The 13th? 
55. The 14th? 56. The 15th? 57. The 16th? 
58. The 1 7th? 59. The 18th? 60. The 19th? 

Chart of the Sovereigns of Europe. — No. IV. 

Some short notes on the history of several of the Euro- 
pean monarchies, of which the history has been omitted, 
in this volume, are here given. They may be attended 
to with a reference to the Chart of History (Chart No. 1.), 
as well as to that of the Sovereigns of Europe. 

Portugal. 

1. This kingdom forms the greatest part of what was 
anciently called Liimania ; and its early history is in- 
volved with that of Spain ; it having been successively in 
subjection to the Romans., Suevi, Visigcths., and Moors. 

2. In the contests between the Moors and Christians, 
Henry, duke of Burgundy, having rendered important ser- 
vices to Jilfh(fnso^ or Aionzo., king of Castile, was rewarded 
by him, in 1094, with that part of Portugal which was 
not in possession of the Moors, to be held with the title 
of coimt or earl. He was succeeded by his son Mphonso., 
who gained a signal victory over the Moors, threw off the 
Castilian yoke, and assumed the title of fe.ng, in 1139. 

3. The reign of John I. is famous for his victories over 
the Castilians, and his expeditions against the Moors; but 
still more so for the impulse given to navigation and the 
progress of discovery, a department of enterprise and 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 29^ 

skill in which the Portuguese were, for a long time, un- 
rivalled by any other natton. 

4. After a succession of important discoveries, Vasco de 
Gama, during the reign of Emanuel, in 1497, doubled the 
Cape of Good Hope, and sailed to India. From that period, 
the trade between that country and Europe, was diverted 
from its former channel through the Red Sea and Egypt, 
and for many years the navigation of the Cape was con- 
sidered as the exclusive property of the Portuguese, on 
the ground of tirst discovery; nor was their monopoly 
effectually invaded till the rise of the Dutch. 

5. Two years after the discovery of the Cape of Good 
Hope, Cabral, a Portuguese, discovered Brazil, which was 
colonized about the middle of the 16th century, and till 
lately, formed an important part of the territories of the 
kings of Portugal. 

6. In 1580, the male line of the royal family of Portu- 
gal having become extinct, and the kingdom having suf- 
fered a series of misfortunes, Fhdip II. of Spain, seized 
upon it, and united it to his crown, but in 1640, the 
Spaniards were expelled, and John, duke of Braganza, 
the presumptive heir, was raised to the throne, in whose 
family it still remains. 

7. In 1807, Portugal being invaded by the French, the 
royal family removed the seat of government to Brazil, 
where they rema;ned till 1820, when they returned to 
Lisbon, with the exception of Pedro or Feter, the king's 
eldest son, who was left regent. In 1823, Brazil was de- 
clared an independent empire, under Pedro, whose title is 
emperor; and in 1825, its independence was acknowl- 
edged by Portugal. 



1. In the early part of the 5th century, Spain, after 
having long been in the possession of the Romans, was 
invaded by the Suevi, Vandals, and A'ans, who were, ere 
long, subdued by the Visigoths. In the early part of the 
8th century, the country was invaded by the Moors or 
Saracens, who, under their commander Muza, gained, ia 
713, the great battle of Xeres, in which Roderic, the 
Gothic king, was slain. 

2. In a few years, the IVIoors overran the most of the 
country, which, for some time, was governed by viceroys 



300 HISTOmCAL ATLAS. 

of the Caliphs; but in 755, Ahdalrahman established an 
independent sovereignty, and assumed the title of CUipk 
of Cordova ; which city he made the seat of his empire, 
and also of arts and magnificence. His posterity kept 
possession of the throne nearly three centuries; but the 
Moorish princes became eflfeminate and weak ; and their 
territories were divided into a great number of small 
sovereignties. 

3. When Spain was first invaded and conquered by the 
Moors, the Gothic, or as they were now styled, the 
Christian forces, retired into the Asturias, and under their 
leader Pel: gio. founded a kingdom in 718. Other parts 
were gradually recovered; and in 1474, the Christian 
kingdoms of Castile^ Lron^ and Arragon^ were united by 
the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, whose reign forms 
an eventful period in the history of Spain, on account of 
this union, the expulsion of the Moors^ and the discovery 
of America 

4. The only place in Spain which the Moors now held, 
was Grenada; of this they were dispossessed in 1492; 
and were afterwards banished from the country. In 1512, 
Navarre was conquered, and all Spain, for the first time, 
was united into one monarchy. 

5. During the long reigns of Charles and his son Philip 
11., Spain took a conspicuous part in the affairs of the 
world ; and on account of her extensive possessions in 
both continents, was regarded as the most formidable 
power in Europe ; but since that period, her comparative 
consequence has dec'iaed, and she has long held only a 
secondary rank among the states of Europe. 

Germany. 

1. In 843, the Empire of the West was divided Into 
three monarchies, France, Germany, and Italy. The im- 
perial dignity was afterwards transferred entirely to Ger- 
many^ which, in European history, is stvled. by way of 
eminence, the Emiire, and its subjects, the Imperialists. 
During more than half of tlie 10th century, it was govern- 
ed, successively, by two able sovereigns. Henry the Fowler^ 
and his son, Oi'lio ihe Great, The latter re^united Italy to 
the empire, and was the greatest soyereiga of the age. 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 301 

2. The reign of Henry IV., sometimes called the Great^ 
is memorable for his quarrel with, and humiliating sub- 
mission to pope Gregory VII. The election of Conrad 
III. gave rise to two celebrated factions, the Gnelphs 
and Ghibehnes^ which harassed Germany and Italy during 
three centuries ; and during this period the imperial 
authority declined, and the papal increased. The Ghibe- 
lines were attached to the emperor ; the Guelphs to the 
pope. 

3. The reign of Frederick I., surnamed Barbarossa, or 
Red-beard, was signalized by his contests with pope Alex- 
ander ill., and by a crusade to the Holy Land, during 
which he was drowned in the river Cydnus in Cilicia. — ■ 
After the reign of Conrad IV., succeeded a period of con- 
tention and confusion, called the Great Interregnum, which, 
after continuing 19 years, was terminated by the election 
of Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, in Switzerland, to the 
imperial throne. 

4 The reign of Louis V. was much disturbed by con- 
tests with pope Juhn XXII. The emperor was excom- 
municated by the pope, and his election declared void ; 
and the pope was also deposed by the emperor. The 
princes of the empire assembled at Frankfort, in 1338, and 
established the famous constitution, called the Pragmatic 
Suiiction ; by which it was determined that the pope had 
no right to approve or reject the election of an emperor, 

5. The reign of Sigismund is memorable by the meet- 
ing of the famous Council of Constance, in order to deter- 
mine the contest respecting the papal authority. John 
Hiiss and Jerome of Prague were condemned and burnt by 
this council. Their adherents in Bohemia, took up arms 
in defence of their religion, and under their famous leader 
Zisca, resisted Sigismund, in a war of 16 years. 

6. Maxitaii>an I. acquired by marriage the sovereignty 
of t!ie JVcthcrlcnds, divide'! Germany in circles, instituted 
the Liifierivl Chamber and, the Aulic Council, and by these 
mearis established a perpetual peace among the separate 
states, and I id the foundation of the subsequent grandeur 
of the emo re. 

7. Chofles v., grandson of Maximilian, was the greatest 
and most powerful sovereign of his age. After a reign of 
nearly forty years, during mo'^t of wh;ch he was engaged 
in war, chieliy with his great rival Francis I. of France, 

26 



302 HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

and raised the house of Austria to its highest splendour, 
he voluntarily resigned the crown, and retired to a monas- 
tery, where he ended his days. During his reign the 
Reformation made great progress in Germany, which, 
however, Charles strenuously opposed. 

8. The reigns of Ferdinand II. and Ferdinand III. were 
signalized by the Thirty years' war, which commenced in 
1618, and was terminated by the peace of Westphalia, in 
1648. This war grew chiefly out of the religious dissen- 
sions of the 16th century: on one side was the Protestant 
confederacy, styled the Evangelical Union; and on the 
other, the Catholic League. It issued in securing an equal 
establishment of the Protestant and Catholic religions. 

9. By the death of Charles VI., the male line of the 
house of Hapsburg became extinct ; and the circumstance 
of there being two claimants to the throne, gave rise to 
a war, styled the war of the Austrian succession, which 
was terminated by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, 
by which the claim of the celebrated Maria Theresa, who 
was married to Francis of Lorraine, was acknowledged. 

10. In 1806, Francis II., who had two years before 
assumed the title of hereditary emperor of Austria, so- 
lemnly resigned his title as emperor of Germany. Thus 
ended the German empire. 

Poland. 

1. Miceslaus, prince of Poland, introduced Christianity 
into the country in the 10th century. The most flourish- 
ing period of the monarchy was during the 15th and 16th 
centuries, when Poland ranked among the most formidable 
states of Europe. 

2. Casimir III., surnamed the Great, in the 14th century, 
founded the university of Cracow, patronized learning, en- 
couraged industry and commerce, and furnished the nation 
with a code of written laws. In the latter part of the 
century, Jagellon, [^Ladislaus V.] duke of Lithuania, by his 
marriage with Hedwiga, queen of Poland, united the two 
countries. 

^ 3. Under the reign of Sigismund I., the kingdom reached 
its highest pitch of dominion and splendour. It afterwards 
declined, but its falling glory was, for a time, upheld by 
John Sobieski, the last great man among its sovereigns. 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 303 

4. Iq 1772, the sovereigns of Russia^ Austria, and Prus- 
sia, having occupied Poland by their armies, made a par- 
tition of the country among themselves. Thus was the 
ill-fated Poland, by an act of the vilest tyranny, blotted 
out from the list of kingdoms. 

' Prussia. 

1. The foundation of Prussian greatness was laid by 
Frederick William, surnamed the Great Elector, who suc- 
ceeded to the government in 1640, and had a long and 
prosperous reign. His successor, a weak and vain prince, 
was raised to the rank, and received the title of king, in 
1701. 

2. Frederick II., surnamed the Great, after suffering 
much hard treatment from his father, ascended the throne 
in 1740; and being ambitious of conquest and military 
glory, he immediately invaded Silesia, with a fine army 
which had been left to him by the late king, and was so 
successful as to obtain the cession of that valuable prov- 
ince. 

3. In 1756, Frederick published a declaration of war 
against Maria Theresa, empress of Germany, who was 
aided by the French and Russians. The contest, which 
was carried on with great spirit on both sides, and was 
signalized by many hard fought and bloody battles, was 
terminated by the peace of Hubertsburg, in 1763: "and 
thus, after a seven years' sanguinary struggle, to which 
his unprincipled projects had given rise, and in which, 
independent of other sufferers, more than half a million of 
combatants had fallen in the field, every thing was re- 
placed on its ancient footing, and the only gainful result 
was simply this, that Frederick of Prussia had been fur- 
nished with an opportunity of proving himself a consum- 
mate commander, animated by an unconquerable spirit of 
military heroism, and endued with one of the coolest heads 
and hardest hearts in Christendom." 

4. Frederick afterwards applied himself to the internal 
improvement of his kingdom ; rebuilt towns, encouraged 
agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. In the infamous 
partition of Poland, he was the prime mover and the 
principal agent. He is esteemed one of the greatest com- 
manders of modern times ,• and was, perhaps, the most 



3®4 HISTORICAL 4TLAS. 

indefatigable sovereign that ever existed. He was fond 
of literature, and possessed extensive literary acquire- 
ments, and considerable merit as an author ; but he was 
despotic in his disposition, and had little sense of justice 
or humanity. 

5. In the late European war, the king of Prussia suf- 
fered a great defeat by the French under Bonaparte, at 
Jena ; and at the peace of Tilsit^ he lost nearly one half 
of his territories. In 1813, be joined the coalition against 
Fratxe, and his army under Blucher, contributed a power- 
ful aid in the overthrow of Bonaparte; and by the treaty 
©f Vienna, he gained a large accession of territory. 



Russia. 

1. The importance of Russia, which is now one of the 
most powerful sovereignties of Europe, is of recent origin. 
In the early part of the last century, it was raised by 
Peter the Great^ one of the most extraordinary princes 
that ever appeared, to a high degree of power. He 
joined in a coalition against Charles XII. of Sweden, and, 
after suffering some defeats, gained the great battle of 
Poltava, and enlarged and strengthened his empire. 

2. Catharine II., who obtained the sceptre by the de- 
thronement and murder of her husband, Peter 111., had a 
long and splendid reign. She displayed extraordinary 
taients for government; carried on the system of improve- 
ment which had been begun by Peter the Great ; em- 
ployed able ministers and generals, among the most 
celebrated of whom were Sunaarrow and Potemkin; and 
enlarged her empire by the addition of the Crimea and 
other territories : — but her public character was stained 
by unprincipled ambition, profound dissimulation, and dis- 
regard to justice ; and in her private character, she was 
a disgrace to her sex, indulging in the most unrestrained 
licentiousness. 

3. The power and dominions of Russia have been ex- 
tended during the reign of the present emperor Alexander^ 
who headed the cqnfederacy that overthrew the power of 
Bonaparte. 



mSTORICAL ATLAS. 305 



Sweden. 



1, This country, together with Norway^ formed the 
Scandinavia of" the ancients, the orig-inal seat of the Goths 
and Vandals.— In the latter part of the Uth century, 
Sweden became subject to Margaret of Denmark, styled 
the Semiramis of the J^orth, who joined the three king- 
doms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway in one, by the 
Union of Calmar, in 1397. But her successor being desti- 
tute of her great abilities, this Union fell to nothing, and 
Sweden was, for a long time, disturbed by insurrections 
and war. 

2. In the early part of the 16th century, the Swedes 
were delivered from the oppression of Christian II., king 
of Denmark, styled the Aero of the North., by Gustavus 
Vasa, a descendant from the ancient kings ; an enlightened 
prince, who was raised to the throne, and who promoted 
the welfare of his subjects, and introduced the Protestant 
religion. 

3 The reign of Gustavus Molphus^ surnamed the Great, 
forms a distinguished era in the history of Sweden. He 
was eminent as a statesman and a sovereign, and is ranked 
among the greatest commanders of modern times. He 
took part with the Protestants in the ihiily years' war, 
and was their most distinguished general. Alter having 
gained a series of advantages, he was slain in the battle 
of Lutzen. 

4. Charles XII., who possessed an enthusiastic passion 
for glory, and a romantic spirit to a degree of infatuation, 
is by some styled the Alexander., and by others the Madman 
of the North. After a brilliant career of victory in his 
wars with the Danes, Poles, and Russians, he was, at last, 
entirely defeated by Peter the Great, in the battle of 
Poltava; since which the Swedish territories have been 
exposed to a progressive reduction by the rising power 
of Russia. 

5. Gustavus IV., having lost Finland, which was con- 
quered, in 1808, by Russia, and, by his mad schomes, 
brought his kingdom to the brink of ruin, was, in 1809, 
deposed, and Bernadotte., one of Bonaparte's generals, was 
elected crown prince or successor to the throne. 1'he 
loss of Finland has since been repaired by the acquisition 
of Norway. 

26* 



306 HISTORICAL ATLAS. 



The Netherlands. 



1. This country, during the middle ages, comprised 
various small states, governed by counts or earls. In the 
15th century, most of the country, which had then become 
the seat of extensive manufactories and the centre of 
European commerce, was possessed by the duke of Bur- 
gundy ; but in the latter part of the century, these prov- 
inces were transferred, by the marriage of Maxiinilian, to 
the house of Austria. 

2. In 1555, they were resigned by Charles V. to his 
son Philip II., king of Spain. In 1579, the Seven United 
Provinces of Holland revolted from the tyranny of Philip^ 
and established their independence: part of the others 
continued in the possession of Spain till the peace of 
Utrecht, in 1703^ when they were again ceded to the 
house of Austria^ which held them till 1794, when they 
were conquered by the French. 

5. Soon alter the Dutch Provinces had emancipated 
themselves from Spain, and established their independ- 
ence and a free government, they rose, by industry and 
enterprise, to a high degree of prosperity, and became 
one of the most formidable maritime powers in the world. 
They stripped the Spaniards of some of their most valuH- 
ble establishments in the East Indies and America, and 
extended their commerce in all directions. 

4. The Seventeen Provinces were, for a few years, 
united to the French empire ; but by the congress of 
Vienna, they were erected into a kingdom under the 
government of the prince of Orange, whose title is king 
of the Netherlands and grand duke of Luxemburg. 

Questions on the Chart of European Sovereigns. — JVo. IV. 

1. In what century was Henry II. king of England ; and 
Becket archbishop ? 

2. In what century did Edward III. reign in England ? 

3. What has been the average length o: the reigns of the 
kings of England? 4. Of those of /'rtmcc .'^ 5. Portugal i* 

6. Of the German emperors? 

7. When was Robert Br re king, of Scotland ? 

8. Who was the last kinar of Scotland ? 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 307 

9. What two houses or families have reigned in Scot- 
land ? 

10. What races of kings have sat on the throne of 
France ? 

1 1 Who was the first king of Portugal ? 

12. When did he begin to reign? 

13. Who first united Spain into one monarchy? 

14. In the latter partof what century did the union take 
place ? 

15. What two races of kings have governed Spain since 
the union ? 

16 In what century did Charles V. and Philip II. govern 
Spain ? 

17. Of what empire did Germany form a part, in 800? 

18. In what century did Henry IV, reign ia Germany? 

19. Charles V.? 

20. When did the reign of the house of Hapsburgh 
commence ? 

21. Who was the last emperor of Germany ? 

22. What did Francis II. become in 1804? 

23. Who was the first king of Poland ? 24. The last ? 
25. In what century did Sigismund I. reign ? 26. Sobieski ? 
27. In what century did the throne become elective ? 
28 Who was the first elector or duke of Prussia ? 

29. Who the first king ? 

30. When did he become king? 

31. When did Frederick the Great reign 

32. Who was the first czar of Russia ? 

33. Who the first emperor? 

34. When did Peter the Great begin to reign ? 

35. Catharine II.? 

36. In what centuries did Margaret govern Denmark 
and Sweden ? 

37. In what century did Giistavus Vasa reign ? 

38. Gustavus Jldnlphus? 39. Charles Wl.l 

40. In what century did the popes Sylvester II. and Gre- 
gory VII. flourish ? 41. Alexander III., and Innocent III. ? 

42. Leo X. and Gregory Xlil ? 

43. Who was the last emperor of the Eastern Empire? 
.' 44. Who was the first Turkish sultan, ai'ter the taking 
©f Constantinople ? 

45. In what century did Solyman the Magnificent reign ? 

46. What other distinguished sovereigns were contem 
poraries of Charles V. of Germany ? 



308 HISTORICAL ATLA9. 

47.' Whea was Sardinia erected into a kiagdom ? 
48. The Two Sicilies F 49. Bavaria? 
50. Saxony and Wuriemberg ? 51. The JVetherlands ? 
52. Hanover. 

Chronological, Genealogical, and Historical Chart of 
England. — JYo. V. 

This Chart, and that also of France, will probably be- 
easily understood, with the explanations already given. 
As a further illustration it may be observed, that it ap- 
pears by the Chart, that Henry VII. was descended from 
Ed-ward III., being of the bth generation ; that HenryYlW. 
was son of Henry VII. ; that Edward VI., Mary, and Eliz- 
abeth were children of Henry VIII. ; that James I. was 
great grandson of Henry VII. ; that Charles I. was son of 
James L; that Charles II. and James II. were sons of 
Charles I. &c. 

In each instance it is to be understood, that the sove- 
reign is the son or daughter of the preceding sovereign 
with whose name his or hers is connected, unless mcn- 
Uoued otherwise. 

Questions. 

1. How many English kings were of the Saxon Family? 

2. Who was the tirst ? 3. Who the last? 

4. Who were the four Danish kings ? 

5. Who were the three kings of the JYorman Family ? 

6. Of what family was Stephen? 

7. Who were the first eight kings of the Family of 
Plantagenet ? 

8. Who were the three of the branch of Lancaster ? 

9. Who the three of the branch of York? 

10. Who were the five sovereigns of the house of 
Tudor ? 

11 What three branches or houses were descended 
from Edward III. ? 

12. Whose children were Edward VI., Mai-y, and Eliz- 
abeth ? 

13. Who were the sovereigns of the Stuart Family? 

14. From whom was James 1. descended ? 

15. Whose great grandson was George I.? 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 309 

16. What kings has the house of Brunswick given t© 
England? 

17. Who was the queen of Henry VI.? 

18. Of Henry VII.? 

19. Who were the queens of Henry VIII.? 

20. To whom was queen Mary married ? 

21. Queen Anne ? 

22. Which king of England had the longest reign ? 

23. What is said of the character and reign of Alfred ? 

Note. Similar questions may be put with respect to 
each of the kings. 

The most distinguished sovereigns of England were 
Alfred, William the Conqueror, Henry II., Edward I., Ed- 
ward III., Henry V., Henry Vll., Henry VIII., Elizabeth^ 
and William III. 

The cause of English freedom has been the most effect- 
ually promoted during some of the weakest or least pros- 
perous reigns ; as those of John, Henry III., Charles I., 
and James II. 

Chrokological, Genealogical, and Historical Chart of 
France. — JVo. VI. 

1. Who were the first two kings of the Carlovingian 
race ? 

2. Who was the first of the Capetian race ? 

3. Who was the first of the branch of Valois? 

4. Who was of the branch of Orleans ? 

5. Who was the first of the branch of Angouleme ? 

6. From whom were these two descended? 

7. Who was the first of the house of Bourbon ? 

8. Frnm which of the Capetian kings was Henry IV. 
descended, in the 10th generation? 

9. Who have succeeded him on the throne ? 

10. When did Bonaparte become emperor? 

11. What grandsons of LoMis XV. have succeeded to the 
throne ? 

12. Which two of the French kings had the longest 
reigns ? 

13. What is said of the character and reign of Charie- 
magne ^ 14. Of Hugh Capet ? 



310 HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

Note. Similar questions may be put with respect to 
each of the kings. 

The most distinguished monarchs that have sat on the 
throne of France, were Charlemagne, Philip Augustus, 
St. Louis, Charles the Wise, Francis I., Henry IV., Louis 
XIV., and Napoleon Bonaparte. 

Chart of American History. — No. VII. 

1. When was America discovered? 

2. What countries on the continent of America were first 
conquered ? 

3. By whom were the conquests and settlements made ? 

4. By whom was Brazil colonized ? 

5. By whom were Canada and Louisiana settled? 

6. Who was king of England when the first English 
settlements were made ? 

7. What other kings reigned during the colonial gov- 
ernment ? 

8. Which of the English colonies was first settled ? 

9. In what order were the others settled ? 

10. By whom was Virginia settled ? 11. New York ? 

12. Massachusetts and New Hampshire? 

13. New Jersey ? &c. 

14. What were some of the events of the 12th century, 
or from 1600 to 1700? 

1 5. What military transactions took place in the same 
period ? 

16. What colleges were founded in this period? 

17. What was the population of New England in 1676? 

18. What was the population of the colonies in 1700? 

19. What were some of the events which took place 
from 1700 to 1775? 

20. What were some of the military transactions of the 
same period? 

21. What facts are mentioned relating to the progress 
oj" society ? 

22. WSiat coHeges were founded ? 

23. Who have been the successive presidents of the 
United States ? 

24. What sUxtes were admitted between 1776 and 1800? 

25. What eras and events are noticed during the sam#^ 
period ? ^ 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 311 

26. At what place did the revolutionary war commence ? 

27. What battles were fought in 1775 and 1776 ? 

28. In 1777? 29. What afterwards ? 

30. What two great surrenders of the British took place ? 

31. What was the closing scene of the war? 

32. In what battle did the Americans suffer the severest 
defeat or greatest loss ? 

33. What military transactions took place after the re- 
volutionary war, and before 1800? 

34. What was the population of the United States in 
1776? 

35. What are some of the facts mentioned relating to 
the progress of society from 1776 to 1790 ? 

36. What colleges were founded in the same period ? 

37. What states have been admitted since 1800? 

38. What events are mentioned since that era? 

39. What military transactions took place between 1800 
and 1812? 

40. What British frigates were taken in 181S? 

41. What defeats did the Americans suffer? 

42. What operations of the war took place in 1813? 

43. In 1814? 44. In 1815? 

45. What facts are mentioned relating to the progress 
of society since 1800 ? 

46. What colleges have been established since that time ? 

Chart of Ecclesiastical History. — See Chart No. I. 

1. This Chart represents the time of the rise of the prin- 
cipal sects or denominations of Christians, both in ancient 
and modern times. The period is ascertained by adding 
the figures prefixed to the name to the preceding century. 
For example, the rise of Marcionites took place in A. D. 
134; that of the Manichees in 277. 

2. The greatest division which took place in the church, 
during its early ages, was that which related to Arian-sm, 
on account of which the famous Councl of Nice, which 
was the first general council, was assembled. By this 
body the opinions of Arius were condemned. Arius, who 
was a presbyter of Alexandria, in Egypt, " maintained 
that the Son of God was totally and essentially distinct 
from the Father; that he was the first and noblest of those 
beings whom God had created, the instrument by whose 



3j£ Historical atlas. 

subordinate operation the Almighty Father had formed 
the universe, and therefore inierior to the Father both in 
nature and dignity." The appellation of Arian has been, 
in modern times, indiscriminately applied to tbose who 
consider Jesus Christ as inferior and subordinate to the 
Father; and the sentiments of most of them do not coin- 
cide exactly with those of the ancient Arians. 

3. The JVestorians derive their name from Nestorius, 
who was. in the 5th century, bishop of Constantinople ; 
and liis principles were zealously promoted by Barsumas. 
He maintained that " there are two persons in Jesus 
Christ, tind two natures, united by one operation and will." 
The Nestorians are often classed with the Greek church, and 
are still found in considerable numbers in Asiatic Turkey 
and India. The Syrian Christians are considered as belong- 
ing to this denomination. Their patriarch, or chief bishop, 
resides at Mosul on the Tigris. 

4. The EutyChians derive their name from Eutyches, 
an abbot of a convent of monks at Constantinople, in the 
5th centuiy, whose doctrine was the very opposite to that 
of Nestorius; viz. "-that in Jesus Christ there was but 
one nature ; and that the divine nature had so completely 
swallowed up the human, that our Saviour had nothing of 
humanity, but the appearance." The Eutychians are 
called Monophysites and also Jacobites, from Jacob Bara- 
dtEus, who flourished in the 6th century, and who is re- 
o-arded as their second founder. The Copts of Egypt, 
the Abyssinians, and a part of the Armenians are of this 

sect. 

5. The Greek Church is so called from its comprehend- 
ing- all Christians within the limits of ancient Greece, to 
distinguish it from the Latin or Romish church; and also 
from its using the Greek language in its liturgies or re- 
ligious service. After the seat of the Roman government 
had been transferred from Rome to Consttmtinople, the 
bishop of the latter city refused to acknowledge the su- 
premacy of the bishop of Rome ; and after a long contest, a 
separation took place in the 9tb century, which was totally 
and permanently consummated in the 1 Uh century. The 
Greek or Eastern church hears a striking resemblance to 
that of Rome, with regard to its ceremonies government, 
and discipline. Its supreme head is !he patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, who is styled the 1 3th apostle, and who has 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. , 331 

the power of nominating the three other patriarchs, those 
of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusaiem. Though the Greek 
church is the established religion of Russia, yet the au- 
thority of. the patriarch of Constantinople in that empire, 
was abolished by Peter the Great in 1721. 

6. f'he Albigeiises and Waldenses are said to be branches 
of the same sect. They were reformers who appeared 
in the 12th century ; opposed the errors and supersti- 
tions of the church of Rome, and were subjected to the se- 
verest persecutions The Aibigenses were so called from 
the town of Alby, in the south of France. The name of 
Waldenses is derived, according to some, from Peter Waldo 
of Lyons ; according to others, it denotes merely the 
People in the Vail ys. Remains of this sect are still found 
in the valleys of Piedmont. 

7. The Wicklijffiies derived their name from the famous 
John Wickliffe, •'• the Morning Star of the Reformation." 
They were, by way of reproach, styled Lollards, a term 
supposed to be derived either from Walter Lollard, who 
propagated doctrines in opposition to the churcli of Rome, 
in Germany, a little before the time of Wickliffe, or from 
an old German word, which signifies " to sing with a low 
voice." 

8. The Hussites derived their name from John Huss of 
Bohemia, who adopted the opinions of Wickliffe, and who 
was burnt by the council of Constance. 

9. The Moravians or United Brethren, according to 
their own account, have existed as a distinct people ever 
since the year 1457, when, separating from those Hussites, 
who, under Zisca, took arms in defence of their religion, 
they formed a plan of church government, and spread 
themselves in Moravia and the neighbouring states. By a 
series of persecutions and oppressions, they became almost 
extinct ; but found a protector in Count Ziozendorf, un- 
der whose patronage they formed a settlement at Hern- 
hutt, in Upper Lusatia, in 1722. They are particularly 
distinguished for their well directed missionary zeal, 
in which they surpass every other denomination of Chris- 
tians. 

10. The Lutherans derive their name from the great 
reformer Martin Luther, and their principles, as maintain- 
ed by his adherents, are to be found in the Confession of 
Augsburg, which was drawn up chieflv by Melancthon 

27 



314 HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

One of the principal peculiarities of the Lutheran church, 
is the doctrine of consiibstantiation^ according to which it 
is maintained " that the body and blood of Christ are ma- 
terially present in the eucharist, though in an incompre- 
hensible manner." In Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, 
the form of government in the Lutheran church, is episco- 
pal ; but in Germany and other countries, where it is 
found, the superior power is vested in a consistory. 

11. The Baptists hold that immersion in water is es- 
sential to Christian baptism, and that those who profess 
repentance and faith are the only proper subjects of it. 
Many of the Waldenses, Wickliffites, and Hussites, were 
with them in sentiment ; but as a modern and separate 
denomination, their rise is dated from an early period of 
the Reformation. 

12. The Church of England, which is episcopal, first 
separated from that of Rome in the reign of Henry VIII., 
and was finally established, in its present form, during the 
reign of Elizabeth. 

13. The Calvinists derive their name from the cele- 
brated reformer John Calvin. Their leading doctrines, 
as maintained by the synod of Dort, are denominated the 
Jive points^ viz. predestination, particular redemption, 
total depravity, effectual calling, and the certain perse- 
verance of the saints. 

14. The term Arminianism is derived from James Ar- 
miniuSj wh© dissented from Calvinism with regard to the 
doctrines of unconditional election, particular redemption, 
and other points necessarily resulting from these. But 
the followers of Arminius formed their leading doctrines 
into five articles, having a relation to the five points of 
Calvinism. 

15. The Socinians are the followers of Laelius Socinus, 
and his nephew Faustus Socinus. They established their 
principal settlement at Racow in Poland, in the 16th cen- 
tury, and became numerous and powerful. Modern So- 
cinians are called Humanitarians^ from their holding the 
simple humanity of Christ. The term Unitarian is com- 
monly used in a much more comprehensive sense, includ- 
ing ail those classes who maintain, in opposition to Trini- 
tarians, that the Deity subsists in one person only- 

16. The founder of the Independents was Mr. John 
Robinson, who was one of those dissenters from the church 
of England, who were styled Puritans. The term usually 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 315 

applied to the denomination in this country is, Congrega- 
tionalists. 

17. The principles of the Friends or Quakers were first 
promulgated by George Fox, about the middle of the 17th 
century. 

18. The two principal founders of the Methodists were 
John Wesley and George Whitefield. At an early period 
they were divided into two parties; the Wesleyan Method- 
ists^ who are Arminians in sentiment; and the Whitefieldiun, 
Avho are Calvinistic. The former now constitute the 
principal portion of the denomination, and are numerous 
in the United States and Great Britain. 

19. The Swedenborgians style themselves the JVew Je- 
rusalem Churchy and were founded by Emanuel Sweden- 
borg. 

• 20. The Roman Catholics are also called Papists, from 
their acknowledging the supremacy of the pope, who 
became a temporal prince in the 8th century, and arrived 
at the zenith of his power in the 1 1th. He is now a tempo- 
ral sovereign in the. Ecclesiastial State in Italy ; in other 
countries, his power is only spiritual. The rule of faith 
in the Roman Catholic church was fixed by the famous 
council of Trent^ whose decrees were received as binding 
in Catholic countries generally, with the exception of 
France. 

21. The most celebrated order in the Roman Catholic 
church in modern times, is that of the Jesuits, instituted 
in 1535, by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish knight. In addition 
to the three vows of poverty, chastity, and monastic obe- 
dience, common among other regular orders, they took a 
fourth vow, that of implicit obedience to the pope. I'he 
members of other monastic orders professed to separate 
themselves from the world and its interests ; but the 
Jesuits, on the contrary, were formed for action, and made 
their influence to be felt in every civilized country, — in 
the courts of sovereigns, and in political affairs, as well as 
in matters of religion, Many of their members were 
distinguished for learning : they promoted literature and 
science; considered the education of youth as their pecu- 
liar province ; became the confessors of most of the princes 
of Europe ; but were notorious for their lax system of 
morals, their ambition and intrigues, and their agency in 
promoting despotism, and perpetuating the most pernicious 



316. HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

errors of popery. They at length excited against them- 
selves the general detestation of mankind, and the sen- 
tence of their abolition was passed by the government of 
almost every civilized country ; and at last, in 1773, by 
pope Clement XIV. : but a bull was issued for their rest®- 
i^atioD, in 1814, by pope Pius Vll. 

Questions on the Chart of Ecclesiastical History. 

1 . What sects arose in the first four centuries ? 

2. In what century did the Aestorians and Eutychians 
appear ? 

3. In what century did the pope's temporal powep 
begin ? 

4. When was Greek or Eastern Church separated from 
the Roman Catholic church ? 

5. When was the Inquisition estabJished ? 

6. What orders in the Roman Catholic church were 
established in the 12th and 13th centuries? 

7. When were the Jesuits established ? 

8. When the Jansenists ? 

9. In what century did the Waldenses and Mbigensas 
first appear ? 10. The Wieklijffites ? &c. &c. 

Chart of Biography. — No. VIII. 

1. This Chart is so constructed as to show, at one view, 
what ages and nations have been distinguished for men of 
genius and learning, and is, therefore, a chart of literature 
as well as of biography : it may also be useful in illustrating 
civil and ecclesiastical history. It comprises the names 
of the most illustrious persons that have figured upon the 
theatre of the world, both in ancient and modern times; 
shows when they lived, and who were contempora- 
ries. It contains the names of almost all the ancient 
classical authors whose works- are still extant, and many 
of those whose writings are lost. It contains also the 
names of the most illustrious moderns ; yet with regard 
to the last three centuries, many considerable names are 
excluded for want of room. It embraces the whole space 
included between the year 800 before the Christian era 
and the present time, which comprises the whole period 
of authentic profane history^ 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 317 

1^. The Greeks derived their knowledge from the Egyp- 
^cians and Phcenicians ; but of the learning of these ancient 
nations, few vestiges now remain. The only Greek authors 
who lived earlier than the time embraced in the chart, 
and whose works are still extant, were the poets Homer 
and Hesiod^ who are supposed to have flourished about 
nine or ten centuries before the Christian era. 

3. The most flourishing period of Grecian literature, 
comprised the 4th and 5th centuries before Christ, during 
the lives of Per'icles, Philip, and Mexander ; or what is 
nearly the same thing, the lives of the celebrated philo- 
sophers Soc'rates, Plato, and Ar'istotle. 

4. Some of the principal Greek poets are Homer, the 
earliest poet whose works are extant, and the first in 
celebrity ; Pindar, the chief of the lyric poets ; JEs' chylus, 
E'urip'ides, Soph'oclcs, Aristoph' anes, and Menun'der, dra- 
matic poets : the most eminent historians, Herod'otus, Thu- 
cyd'ides, Xen'ophon, Polyb'ius, Diodo'rus Sic'ulus, DionysHws 
of Halicarnassus, and Ar'rian. 

5. Most of the ancient sects of philosophy had their 
origin among the Greeks. Thales was the founder of the 
Ionic sect ; Pythag' oras, of the Ilalic or Pythagore' an ; Xe- 
noph'anes, of the Eleatic ; Heracli'tus, of the Heraclite' an ; 
Socrates, of the Socratic ; Phccdo, of the Eliac or Eretriac ; 
Antis'thenes, of the Cynic ; Aristip'pits, of the Cyrejia'ic } 
Plato, of the Academic ; Aristotle of the Peripatetic ; Eu- 
clid, of the Megaric or Eristic ; Pyrrho, of the Sceptic or 
Pyrrhonic ; Epicurus, of the Epicure' an ; and Ticno, of the 
Stoic. 

6. The Academic sect, founded by Plato, was divided 
into the Old Academy, which adhered strictly to his doc- 
trine ; the Middle Academy, founded by Arcesila'us ; and 
the New Academy, founded by Curne'ades. Afterwards . 
arose the Eclectic sect, founded by Pot'amo, and new- 
modelled by Ammo'nius, who were both of Alexandria, 
The Eclectics professed to adopt from every sect such 
doctrines as were true, but they made the philosophy of 
Plato the foundation of their system, and are often called 
Later Platonists. 

7. The most flourishing period of Roman literature, as 
ap])ears by the chart, was the century immediately pre- 
ceding, and that immediately following the Christian era. 

27* 



318 . HISTORICAL ATLAS 

The Jhigustan age^ or the reiga of Augustus, embraced 
about 44 years, from 31 B. C. to A. I). 14. 

8. The principal poets among the Romans were Virgil., 
the great Roman epic poet, Ennius^ Terence^ Lucretius^ 
Horace^ Ovid, Lucan, Martial, and Juvenal : the most emi- 
nent historians, Ccesa7', Sallust, Liivy, Tacitus, Suetonius, 
and Quintus Cur tins. 

9. The Romans were less inclined to philosophical 
speculation than the Greeks ; and philosophy was but 
little cultivated among them Isefore the time of Cicero ; 
but after it was introduced, almost all the Grecian sects 
found patrons and followers. Cicero, the most eminent 
of all the Roman philosophers, as well as orators, inclined 
to the Academic sect. Some of the most illustrious Stoics 
were Brutus, Cato of Utica, »S'eneca, and the emperor JWar- 
cus Aurelius Antoninus. 

10. The term Fathers, is usually applied to the theolo- 
gical writers of the first six or seven centuries after the 
Christian era ; and is sometimes extended so far as to in- 
clude St. Bernard of the 12th century. Those who wrote 
in the Latin language, and who stand on the chart in the 
upper division, above the blank space, are styled Latin 
Fathers ; those who wrote in Greek, the Greek Fathers. 
Some of the most eminent of the Greek Fathers, are 
Clernens Romanus, Ignatius, Justin Martyr, Polycarp, Ire' 
ncsus, Origen, Aihanasius, and Chrysostom ; of the Latin 
Fathers, Tertulliar- , I^aciantius, Ambrose, Jerome, Augusiiney 
and Gregory the Great. 

11. While Europe was immersed in barbarism, learning 
found an asylum among the Arabians or Saracens. It was 
introduced among them in the 8th century, by the caiiph 
Almansor, shone forth in its meridian splendour during the 
reigns of Al Raschid and Al Mamon, and continued to 
flourish, in some degree, till the middle of the ISth cen- 
tury, when Bagdad was takerr by Hulaku, and the caliph- 
ate abolished. The most admired of the Saracen philo- 
sophers was Avereos. The branches of science and 
literature chiefly cultivated among them, were medicine, 
astronomy, mathematics, physics, metaphysics, and poetry. 

12. The scholastic philosophy had its origin from the 
application of the philosophy of Aristotle, styled also the 
dialectic philosophy, to the illustration of theology. It be- 
gan to be publicly taught in the schools m the beginning- 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 319 

ot" the 12th century, and prevailed till the time of the 
Reformation, taking the lead of every other species of 
learning. This disputatious theology was overloaded with 
metaphysical subtleties, and was a science of sophistry 
and chicane. The most celebrated, and among the most 
interesting subjects of fliscujsion were the freedom of the 
will, and more especially the reaiity of univei'sal ideas ; 
that is, whether universal ideas are things actually exist- 
ing in nature (as held by the Realists)^ or whether they 
were merely words, (as maintained by the jYoftmiaiists). 

13. The period of scholastic philosophy and theology, 
is divided into three ages ; the 1st, beginning with Lan- 

franc, or with the famous JibeUrd^ who so much surpassed 
his predecessors, that he is regarded as the chief founder 
of scholastic theology; the 2d, with Albert., about 1250; 
and the 3d, with Duraad, about 1330. 

14. The spirit of disputation among the scholastics or 
school-men, gave birt'u to various sects. The followers 
of Albert were styled Albertisls ; those of Thomas Aquinas, 
Thomisis ; those of Duns Scoius, Scotisis ; and those of 
William Occam., Occamisis ; but the most celebrated di- 
visions were those of the Realists and JYominalists ; the 
former of which was the prevailing sect. The contests 
between these sects were carried on by the use of the 
sword as well as of the pen. 

15. Some of the most famous champions of the schools, 
were honoured with titles which were regarded as charac- 
teristic of their genius or acquirements. Thus William 
de Champeaux was styled the Venerable Doctor; Peter 
Lombard, Master of Sentences ; Alexander Hales, the Irref- 
ragable Doctor ; Albert, the Great ; Thomas Aquinas, 
(the most celebrated metaphysician of the middle ages) 
the Angelic Doctor; Bonaventure, the Seraphic Doctor; 
Roger Bacon, (who was superior to any mere scholastic, 
and distinguished for his knowledge of mathematics and 
natural philosophy) the Wonderful Doctor ; Richard Mid- 
dleton, the Profound Doctor ; Duns Scotus, the Subtle Doc- 
tor ; William Durand, the Resolute Doctor ; and William 
Occam, the Invincible Doctor. 

16. A race of Provencal poets, called Troubadours, a 
species of wandering bards, gained celebrity in the middle 
ages. They were in the highest credit about the middle 
of the 14th century, and near the end of that century he- 



320 HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

came extinct. The first on record was William coinit of 
Poitou, who died in 1 126. 

17. In the revival of literature, in modern times, Itahj 
has the honour of having taken the lead, being the coun- 
try in which ancient learning- was tirst successfully culti- 
vated, and which produced, at the earliest period, authors 
of classical and standard merit. The most celebrated 
Italian poets are Dante, Petrarch, Ariosto, and Tasso. 
The first two flourished in the 14th century, as also did 
Boccace, more celebrated for prose than poetry. The 
house of Medici were distinguished as patrons of literature 
in the 15th and 16th centuries, and at that period Italy 
surpassed all other countries in literature and the fine 
arts. 

18. Two of the most celebrated names in Spanish liiera- 
iiire, are those of Cervantes and Lopez de Vega, who flour- 
ished in the latter part of the 16th and the beginning of 
the 17th centuries. The poet Camoens, the chief boast 
of the Portuguese, was a little earlier. 

19. The most brilliant period of French literature was 
during the reign of Louis XIV., the latter half of the 17th 
century, and the beginning of the 18th. He was the 
greatest patron of learning of the age, and during his 
long reign, France produced more men eminent in litera- 
ture and the arts, than any other country. During the 
last 30 years, the sciences have been cultivated in France 
with great success. 

20. Chaucer, who is, next after Dante and Petrarch, the 
most celebrated poet of the middle ages, flourished in 
England in the 14th century: but English classical lit- 
erature may be considered as beginning in the reign of 
Elizabeth, with Hooker, Bacon, Spencer, and Shakspeare, 
Bacon pointed out the true mode of philosophizing ; the 
works of Newton formed an era in natural philosophy and 
astronomy, as did those of Locke in the philosophy of the 
human mind ; and Milton is esteemed the greatest epic 
poet of modern times. 

21. The Germaas and other bordering and kindred na- 
tions have produced a succession of eminent scholars and 
philosophers since the period of the Reformation. The}?- 
claim the merit of many important inventions, as that of 
gunpowder, printing, watches, the air-pump, and of the 
telescope. 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 3£l 

22. Erasmus^ a native of Rofterdam, was the most cele- 
brated scholar of his age. Copernicus^ of Thorn in Prussia, 
was the restorer of the true system of the world. Kepler^ 
of Germany, a contemporary of Galileo of Italy, was, next 
to him, the greatest astronomer of his age. Grotius, of 
Holland, was one of the profoundest scholars of his time, 
and Boerhaave, of the same country, the most distinguished 
physician. Leibnitz^ of Leipsic, ranks >among the most 
eminent philosophers ; and Linncnus^ of Sweden, is regard- 
ed as the greatest naturalist of modern times. 

Questions on the Chart of Biography. 

1. What Hebrew prophets or Zsrae/iiey flourished between 
700 and 800 years before Christ ? 2. What three prophets 
were living 600 years before the Christian era ? 

3. With what Israelites was Confucius contemporary? 

4. With what three Israelites were Socrates and Cincin- 
nattts contemporary ? 5. In what centuries did Greece 
most abound in illustrious men ? 6. About how long be- 
fore Christ did Solon^ Thales, and the others of the seven 
wise men, flourish? 7, In what order of time did Pytha- 
goras, Socrates, Aristotle, and Zeno flourish ? 

8. About how long before Christ did Miltiades live ? 

9. Pericles? 10. Herodotus? 11. Epaminondas ? 

12. Demosthenes? 13. Epicurus? 14. Philopoemen ? 

15. Dionysius of Halicarnassus? 16. When did P/m- 
^arc/Y flourish ? 17. Epictetus and Galen ? 18. Longinus? 

19. In what centuries did Rome most abound in illustri- 
ous men ? 20. How long before Christ did Ennius live ? 

21. What other poets were contemporary with him? 

22. Who were some of the illustrious contemporaries of 
Cicero ? 23. When did Virgil flourish ? 24. What other 
poets lived in the same age ? 25. Which preceded the 
other, Sullust or Livy ? 26. In what century did l^eneca, 
Liican, Q^uintus Curtius, Quintilian, and Tacitus live ? 

27. Whea did Martial, Fliny Jun., and Juvenal flourish? 

28. Boeihius 1 29. Trebonian, Belisarius, a'.^.d J^arscs ? 

30. In what centuries did the Christian Fathers flourish? 

31. Who were some of the earliest Greek Fathers? 
[Those below the blank space were Greeks, and those abov^ 

Latins.'] 

32. Who were some of the earliest Latin Fuihersl 

33. In what century did Origen flourish ? 



S22 HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

34. Lactantius, Ambrose, Arius, Athanasius, and Basil? 

35. Chrysostom, Jerome, Augustine, and Pelagius? 

36. In what centuries did distinguished men appear 
among the Saracens ? 37. When did Ahnansor and M Ras- 
chid flourish ? 38. Averoes ? 39. In what centuries did 
the Scholastics flourish? 40. Abelard ? 41. Aquinas? 
42. Duns Scotus ? 

43. Who were the princip-dl Reformers ? 

44. In what century did they flourish? 

45- In what century did Dante^ Petrarch, and Boccace 
flourish ? 46. Which lived earliest ? 47. What English 
poets were born before the death of Petrarch ? 

48. In what century did Cosmo and Lorenzo de Medici 
flourish ? 49. What great navigators lived a little after 
the latter ? 50. What poets of Italy &c. flourished in the 
16th century? 61. When did Galileo of Italy, Bacon of 
England, and Kepler of Germaay flourish? 

52. What statesmen and xaarriors flourished in France in 
the 16th century? 53. In the 17th? 54. The 18th? 

55. What poets flourished in France in the 17th century 1 

56. In what century did R. Bacon flourish in England? 

57. In what century the Black Prince, John of Gaunt^ 
Wickliffe, and Chaucer ? 58. What statesmen and warriors 
flourished in England in the 16th century? 59 In the 
i7th? 60. The 18th? 61. Who were some of the di- 
vines ofthe 1 6th century? ,62. The 17th? 63. The 18th? 

64. Who the poets and other illustrious men of each of 
these centuries ? 65. Who were some of the statesmen 
and warriors in Germany &c. in the 17th century? 

66. Who in the 18th? 67 What celebrated Germans 
&.C. were contemporary with Luther P 68. With Grotius? 

m. W\ih Leibnitz ? 70. Wih Linncsus? 

Chart of Mythology. — JVo. IX. 

1. Mythology, a term derived from the Greek words 
{mSq^, a fable, and /eyas, a discourse, signifies the fabulous 
history of the gods and heroes, who were worshipped by 
ancient heathen nations, particularly the Greeks and the 
Romans. 

2. The origin of Pagan worship is involved in obscurity, 
it is, however, maintained by learned men, who have de- 
moted their attention to the subject, " That the mythology 



HISTORICAL ATLAS. 32S 

of the most ancient Pagan nations, how much soever it 
may have been corrupted in subsequent ages, had an ob- 
vious reference to the traditions which had been preserved 
respecting the antediluvian period of the world, to the 
deluge itself, and to the Sabean idolatry [the worship of 
the host of heaven], which seems to have been the earliest 
corruption of the true religion." 

3. The Greeks derived their mythology, as well as the 
rudiments of their knowledge, from the Egyptians and 
Phoenicians, but they adapted the traditions and fables to 
their own manners and ideas ; applied them to their own 
history ; and added to the number of deities, by paying 
divine honours to such persons as rendered themselves in 
any way famous. The same mythology was adopted, with 
little alteration, by the Romans. 

4. The heathen deities are represented as governed by 
the vilest passions, and guilty of the most atrocious crimes. 
Their worship was celebrated by priests in splendid and 
costly habits, who offered in sacrifice, animals, fruits, per- 
fumes, and, in some instances, human victims. These sa- 
crifices were sometimes accompanied by prayers, music, 
and dancing ; and were frequently attended with the most 
impure and licentious rites. This system was, therefore, 
little calculated to promote virtue in its votaries. 

5. Some knowledge of mythology is necessary in order 
to enable one to read, with advantage, the ancient classic 
authors, and to understand antique statues, medals, and 
paintings. Even in the English poets passages frequently 
occur, which cannot be understood without some know- 
ledge of this subject. 

6. The gods were divided into the Celestial, Teresirial^ 
Marine, and Infernal : also by the Romans, into the «Sm- 
perior Gods [Dii Majorum Gentium], and the Inferior Gods 
[Dii Minorum Gentium]. The l^J following are reckoned 
the Superior Gods ; Jupiter, Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Mars, 
Venus, Diana, Neptune, Apollo, Mercury, Vulcan, and 
Ceres: to these some others are often added, as Saturn, 
Pluto, Bacchus, &c. The Inferior Gods amounted to many 
thousands. 

7. The ancient poets differ much in their accounts of 
the genealogy of the gods and heroes ; bu' ti\e most usual 
representations are followed in the chart. With respect 
to a part of them, there are said to have been several of 



324 HISTORICAL ATLAS. 

the same name ; as, for example, there were many persons 
of the name of Jupiter, and also of Hercules ; but the ac- 
tions of all the rest were ascribed to one. 

Questions on the Chart of Mythology. 

1 . Who was Uranus ? 2. What were his children called ? 

3. Who was Saturn? 

4. What sons of Saturn were preserved by Cybele ? 

5. What was the reign of Saturn in Italy called 1 

6. Who was Jupiter? 7. How is he re|iresented ? 

8. How did he divide the empire of the universe? 

9. Who were the principal Celestial Deities ? 

10. Who was ^/5o//o .^ 11. How represented? 

12. Where were his most fi^mous oracles? 

13. Where his favourite residence ? 

14. Who was jMars ? 15. How represented ? 

[The same questions respecting t'te ot/iers.'J 

16. What the names of the three Graces? 

17. Who were they? 18. How represented? 

19. Who were the principal Terrestrial Deities ? 

20. Who was Fulcan ? 21. How represented? 

22. Who were his forgemen ? 

23. Who was Diana? 24. How represented? 

25. How many Muses were there ? 

26. How represented ? 

27. Over what did Clio preside ? 28. Calliope? &c. 
29. Who was Festa ? 30. How represented ? 

31. Ceres? 32. Cybele? 33. Janus? 

34. Who was JVe:jiu:ie ? 35. How represented ? 

36.0ce'anus? il.Tethys? 3Q. JVereus ? 39. Triton? 

40. Proteus? 41. The Sirens ? 

42. Who was Pluto? 43. How represented? 

44. Proserpine ? 45. What were the infernal rivers ? 

46. WhoXhe ferryman ? 41 . The judges ? 48. Gorgons? 

49. Who were the Parcce or Fates? 

50. What offices did they perform ? 

61. Who were the Furies? 52. How represented? 

53. Who was Pan? 54. Silenus ? &c. 

5.5. Who was Hercules ? 

59. Fp^AyhatDvas he celebrated ? &c. 

THE END. 



•JM 



If-^-. 



Treatment Date ';^"'"'''""°^"^^ 

111 Thomson Park Drive 



